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ANCIENT   CIVILIZATION 


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THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON    •    CHICAGO   -    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMH.LAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


ANCIENT    CIVILIZATION 


A  TEXTBOOK 


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SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 


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THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1915 

All  rights  reserved 


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.CoPTBiGifr,  1914,  1915, 
By  TflE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 


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Kortoooti  }|rfS8 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Herwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

A  GREAT  deal  more  attention  is  being  given  to  social  his- 
tory and  the  life  of  the  people  of  the  past  than  was  formerly 
the  case.  A  great  deal  less  is  being  given,  except  by  classi- 
cal students,  to  the  history  of  Greece  and  Rome.  This 
book  aims  to  meet  the  need  of  schools  that  desire  a  short 
ancient  history  text,  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  which  shall 
not  be  chiefly  a  narrative  of  events.  It  deals  primarily  with 
human  progress.  It  devotes  especial  attention  to  great 
movements,  to  important  leaders,  to  the  life  of  the  people 
and  to  the  civilization  of  different  periods.  Although  it  is 
not  always  easy  to  trace  the  records  of  the  "  dim  silent 
masses,"  this  social  history  seems  to  be  worth  more  than 
the  annals  of  courts  or  of  conquerors.  As  far  as  possible, 
the  author  has  tried  to  keep  in  mind  three  things :  (1)  the 
importance  of  any  change  as  a  part  of  the  development  of 
ancient  civilization;  (2)  the  connection  between  these 
changes  and  modern  life ;  and  (3)  the  interest  and  capacity 
of  the  student  in  the  high  school.  He  has  tried  to  give  a 
correct  impression  of  events  and  changes  rather  than  to 
describe  them  with  literal  accuracy,  as  literal  accuracy  is 
impossible  in  so  brief  an  account.  Even  if  it  were  not  im- 
possible, it  would  be  undesirable,  for  an  exact,  detailed  ac- 
count would  render  obscure  the  character  and  the  meaning 
of  the  movement  under  consideration.  Brief  and  general 
as  is  this  survey  of  a  very  broad  field,  the  author  hopes 
that  he  may  have  made  the  subject  interesting  as  well  as 
intelligible. 

The  author's  thanks  are  due  to  the  following  teachers  for 
the  reading  of  part  or  all  of  the  book  in  manuscript:  Miss 

V 


vi  PREFACE 

Maude  Frances  Stevens  of  the  Palo  Alto  (California)  High 
School,  Miss  Alice  N.  Gibbons  of  the  East  High  School, 
Kochester,  New  York,  and  Miss  Leonora  Schopbach  of  the 
Pasadena  (California)  High  School.  He  is  indebted  to  Pro- 
fessors George  AVillis  Botsford,  T.  G.  Tucker,  Charles 
Heald  Weller,  F.  15.  Tarbell,  and  AV.  G.  Solas  for  the  use 
of  illustrations  from  their  books.  His  indebtedness  to  other 
authors  and  illustrators  is  indicated  in  the  text  or  in  the  list 
of  illustrations.  The  author  will  be  glad  to  receive  sugges- 
tions or  criticisms  from  those  that  have  occasion  to  use  the 
volume. 

Pasadena,  California, 
July,  1914. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 


SECTION 

1.    Ancient  and  Modern  Civilization 
7.    History  and  Prehistory  . 


PART    I 
THE   DAWN    OF   CIVILIZATION 

CHAPTER  I 

PREHISTORIC   MAN 

12.  The  Old  Stone  Age 

11).  The  New  Stone  Age  ..... 

25.  Prehistoric  Civilization 

37.  Man  at  the  Dawn  of  History 

CHAPTER   II 
THE   DAWN   OF   HISTORY 

43.   Ancient  Egypt  .         .         .         .         . 
51.    The  Tigris-Euphrates  Valley  —  Early  Period 
58.   Assyria  and  Chaldea         ..... 
64,    The  East  Mediterranean  Coast 

CHAPTER  HI 
ANCIENT   CIVILIZATION 

74.  The  Ruling  Classes  . 

79.  Life  of  jhe  People  . 

86.  Religion      .... 

96.  Writing  and  Literature 

105.  Trade  and  Industry 

113.  Progress  of  Twenty-five  Centuries 

vii 


11 

15 
18 
25 


33 
39 
44 
49 


60 
64 
70 
77 
83 
89 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE   .KGEAN   AREA 

8E<  TION 

117.  The  Geography  of  the  yEgean  Area 

122.  Early  ^Egean  Civilizations 

127.  The  Homeric  Ace 

132.  The  Unity  of  the  Greeks 

138.  The  Greater  Greek  World 

145.  Sparta  .... 

150.  Athens         .... 


95 
98 
101 
104 
109 
113 
115 


PART    II 

THE   EXPANSION   OF   THE   NATIONS 
(550-146  H.c.) 

A.     GREECE 

CHAPTER  V 

GREECE   AND   PERSIA 
157.    The  Geography  of  Ancient  Expansion  . 

160.    The  Persian  Empire 

167.    The  Persian  Wars 


CHAPTEPv    VI 
HELLENIC   GREE(  E 

178.    The  Golden  Age  of  Greece    .... 

188.    The  Peloponnesian  War 

194.    ^gospotami  to  Ch.eronea         .... 

CHAPTER   VII 
ALEXANDER  :    THE    HELLENISTIC    AGE 
201.    The  Empire  of  Alexander       .... 
208.    The  Hellenistic  Age 


127 
129 
134 


145 
154 

157 


164 
169 


CONTENTS 


IX 


SECTION 

212.    Centers  of  Hellenistic  Cultitke 
218.    Greece  after  Alexani>kr 


PAGE 

171 
174 


CHAPTER   VIII 


THE   PLACE    OF   GREECE   IN   HISTORY 


225.  Social  Life 

234.  Government 

239.  Literature 

250.  Greek  Art 

259.  Intellectual  Science 

268.  Spread  op  Hellenism 


180 
180 
189 
194 
201 
207 


B.     ROME 


CHAPTER  IX 

EARLY   ROME 

275.  Geography  

280.  The  Romans  before  510  h.c.    . 

286.  The  Struggle  of  the  Classes 

293.  The  Conquest  of  Italy     . 

299.  The  Roman  State  and  Army    . 


218 
220 
224 
227 
231 


CHAPTER   X 

CONQUEST  OF  THE   MEDITERRANEAN   (264-146  a.d.) 

304.    Before  and  after  the  Punic  Wars        ....  238 

308.    Carthage 240 

313.    The  Early  Punic  Wars 243 

321.    Completion  of  Mediterranean  Conquests     .         .         .  247 

326.    Changes  in  Rome 250 


roXTENTS 


1\\RT    III 

THE   ]JOMAN   AVORLl)   STATE 
(14()  i'..c.-47r)  A.D.) 

CIIAPTKK   XI 
REVOLUTION   AND   IMPERIALISM    (146  h.c.-14  a.d.) 

SECTION 

330.    The  Eakly  Revolt  against  Senatorial  Rule 

342.    The  Strcogle  for  Militauy  Supremacy 

349.    The  Establishment  of  an  Empire  .... 

CHAPTER   XII 
THE   ROMAN    WORLD 
300.    Rome  and  the  Empiue       ...... 

365.   Classes  in  thi:  Roman  World  .... 

375.    Life  of  the  People  ....... 

382.    romanization  of  the  mediterranean  world 


I'ACE 

202 
205 
2({9 


279 
285 
200 
297 


CHAPTER   XIII 

THE   ROMAN   EMPIRE   AFTER    AUGUSTUS 

388.    From  Augustus  to  Marcus  Aurelius      .         .         .         .  300 

395.    Disorder  and  Reorganization  .....  311 

399.    The  Spread  of  Christianity    ......  314 

404.   The  Declink  of  the  Empire    ......  318 


TRANSITION    FROM   ANCIENT   TBIES 

CHAPTER  XIV 
THE   GERMANS   IN    WESTERN   EUROPE 

412.    The  Germans 

420.    The  Teutonic  Kingdoms 

425.    Fusion  of  Roman  and  Teuton 

431.    The  Christian  Church 

437.    The  Mohammedans 

442.    The  Empire  of  the  Franks 


325 
329 
332 
330 
339 
342 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


The  Acropolis,  Athens,  restored  by  D'Ooge 


Frontispiece 

PAGE 
.  11 

U 


Fist-hatchet,  after  Chouquet    ....... 

Prehistoric  painting  (Altaniira),  after  Cartailliac  and  Breuil 
Prehistoric  Egyptian  vases,  from  Petrie,  Arts  and  Crafts  in 

Ancient  Eciypt  (McCkirg) 
Prehistoric  horse  (Przevalsky) 
The  Great  Pyramids 
Karnak,  Great  Columns    . 
Hammurabi  receiving  code 
Six-sided  cylinder      .... 
Winged  bull,  after  Perrot  and  Chipiez 
Kuins  of  Babylon      .... 
The  "  Moabite  Stone  "... 
Egyptian  house 

The  scribe  ..... 

The  bastinado,  after  INlaspero,    Ancient   Egypt  and  Assyria 

(Appleton)         ..... 
Peasant's  house,  after  Perrot  and  Chipiez 
Women  grinding  at  the  mill    . 
Woman  making  bread      .         . 
Mummy  and  mummy  case 
Judgment  of  the  Soul,  after  Maspero 
Temple  of  Luxor,  restored,  after  Perrot  and  Chipiez 
Babylonian  temple,  after  Perrot  and  Chipiez 
The  "  Rosetta  Stone  " 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics     . 
Irrigation  on  the  Euphrates 
Egyptian  water-sweep 
Trade  in  market 
An  Egyptian  siiip,  after  Masjtcro 
A  Cretan  vase,  from  Antnial  of  the  /iritis//  School  at 
The  Lion  Gate,  Mycenae  . 
Olympia  restored 


17 
22 
36 
37 
42 
44 
46 
47 
52 
62 
64 

65 
66 
67 
68 
72 
73 
74 
75 
77 
78 
82 
83 
86 
88 
99 
100 
107 


XI 


Xll 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Acropolis  at  Athens 

Ancient  coin      ..... 

Cylinder  of  Cyrus     .... 

]\Iarathon,  looking  toward  the  sea   . 
Bay  of  Salamis  .... 

Harbor  of  Piraeus  (^Nlunychia) 
Seats  in  the  amphitheatre  at  Athens 
The  benia,  Athens    .... 

Pericles      ...... 

Porch  of  the  Maidens 

Pallas  Athena,  by  Phidias 

Plan  of  the  Acropolis,  by  Robert  H.  Dale 

Demosthenes     ..... 

Alexander 

Altar  of  Zeus,  Pergamum,  restored 
Laocoon    ...... 

Woman's  dress  .... 

Greek  chairs,  after  Guhl  and  Koner 
Writing  materials,  after  Guhl  and  Koner 
Masks  for  tragedy,  after  Guhl  and  Konei 
Greek  and  Roman  theatres,  after  Cockerell 
Orders  of  Greek  Architecture,  from  Statham, 

General  Renderfi 
The  Parthenon,  present  condition    . 
Discobolus,  by  Myron 
The  Three  Fates       .... 

Hermes,  by  Praxiteles 
Sarcophagus  of  the  King  of  Sidon    . 
Apollo  Belvidere        .... 

W^inged  Victory  of  Samothrace 
Venus  de  Milo  ..... 

Socrates 

Vestal  Virgin    ..... 
Sacred  chickens,  after  Schreiber 
Roman  soldier,  after  Guhl  and  Koner 
A  Triumph  —  that  of  Julius  Ca'sar,  46  » 
Roman  artillery  (Dictionary  of  Antiqnit 
R(jman  gladiators,  after  (iuhl  and  Kduci 
Pomi)ey  the  (ireat     .... 


c,  after 


A  rch 


itecture  for 


Weimt 


116 
117 
131 
135 
189 
147 
148 
141) 
150 
152 
152 
153 
160 
164 
171 
172 
182 
182 
183 
190 
191 

195 
196 
197 
198 
198 
199 
200 
201 
201 
202 
222 
223 
231 
232-3 
219 
252 
267 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Xlll 


Julius  C?esar     .         .         ,         . 

Augustus 

The  Forum  to-day    . 
The  Forum  restored,  after  Gattesch 
Imperial  Rome,  general  view,  by  Bigot   .         .         .  following 
The  Colosseum,  present  condition 
The  Pantheon  .... 
Ruins  of  gymnasium  of  Hadrian 
Roman  bridge  and  aqueduct    . 
Roman  theatre .... 
Slave  in  fetters 

Horsing  a  boy  .... 
Scheme  of  Roman  house  . 
House  furniture 
Peristyle  in  house  of  the  Vettii 
Toga,  after  Guhl  and  Koner    . 
Baths  of  Caracalla,  exterior 
Colosseum,  restored  by  C.  Nippi-Landi 
Circus  Maximus,  restored 
Appian  Way,  with  ruins  of  Claudian  aqueduct 
Spoils  from  Jerusalem,  Arch  of  Titus 
Vesuvius  from  Forum  of  Pompeii    . 
Statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
Walls  of  Aurelian,  Rome 
Church  of  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople 
St.  Peter's  Church,   Rome,  during  the  early   Middle    Ages 
restoration  by  Costarossa .         .         .... 


PAGE 

269 
•272 

280 
280 
280 
281 
282 
283 
284 
284 
288 
290 
291 
292 
292 
293 
294 
295 
296 
298 
308 
309 
310 
312 
313 

344 


LIST   OF   COLOR   MAPS 


PAGE 

Egyptian  empire,  145  B.C.          .....      npposiff.  49 

Hittite  empire,  1850  Ji.c".            .....           '•  49 

Babylonian  and  Assyrian  empires,  1900  b.c.  and  G70  b.c.    "■  49 

Greece        .........           "  95 

Greater  Hellas,  showing  Phoenician  colonies   .         .           "  111 

Four  Great  Kingdoms,  555  b.c.         ....           "  181 

Persian  empire ........           "  181 

Empire  of  Alexander  the  Great,  showing  the  kingdoms  of  his 

successors  ........      opposite  167 

Italy  . "  219 

Expansion  of  Rome           ......   foUoicing  250 

Roman  empire  under  Diocletian  and  Constantine  .      opposite  812 

Teutonic  kingdoms  in  Western  Europe  about  525  a.d.     ''  831 

Mohammedan  and  Christian  Worlds,  800  a.d.         .           '^  340 


MAPS   IN   TEXT 


Ancient  Egypt  ...... 

Tigris-Euphrates  basin 

East  Mediterranean  coast 

Greece  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  Wars 

Athens  and  Pirseus  (from  Botsford) 

Important  Roman  roads  . 

The  German  migrations  . 


34 
40 

50 
119 
147 
299 
830 


XV 


SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS 

This  book  is  offered  as  a  text  for  a  half-year  course  in 
ancient  history ;  or  for  the  first  half  of  a  year's  survey  of 
European  history  to  the  Reformation  or  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury ;  or  for  a  year's  work  in  ancient  history  with  sufficient 
use  of  the  references.  Studies  and  other  suggestions  for 
supplementary  work  are  given  for  those  who  can  devote  at 
least  a  half  year  to  the  subject.  Some  of  the  more  difficult 
topics  and  discussions  will  naturally  be  read  rather  than 
studied  by  younger  students.  Those  who  wish  to  give 
much  less  time  to  ancient  history  may  find  the  following 
suggestions  helpful : 

Those  who  wish  chiefly  a  narrative  of  ancient  history 
may  devote  especial  attention  to  the  narrative  chapters, 
particularly  II,  IV-VII,  IX-XI,  XIII-XIV,  simply  reading 
the  other  chapters  and  the  parts  of  these  narrative  chapters 
that  deal  with  life  or  civilization. 

Those  who  wish  to  give  special  attention  to  ancient  life 
only,  may  study  the  Introduction,  chapters  III,  VIII,  XII, 
the  summaries  of  the  other  chapters,  and  many  of  the 
following  sections:  42-45,  49-54,  57,  63,  72,  117-144, 
156-160,  176,  183-187,  206-209,  212-216,  274-287,  299-302, 
304-312,  326-335,  349,  352-358,  399-419,  425-436,  447-449. 

In  either  of  these  ways  a  course  can  be  arranged  that 
may  be  given  in  a  half-year,  with  not  more  than  three  reci- 
tations per  week. 

Even  those  who  have  but  a  short  time  for  ancient  history 
will  probably  be  able  to  use  some  of  the  Studies.  These  sup- 
plementary readings  have  been  selected  with  care,  and  repre- 
sent the  most  readable  and  most  satisfactory  selections  that 
the  author  has  been  able  to  find  in  a  small  collection  of  books. 
Some  of  these  accounts  are  necessarily  from  the  works  of 

xvii 


XX  SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

Seignobos'  History  of  the  Roman  People  is  more  usable 
probably  than  Pelham's  excellent  Outlines  of  Roman  His- 
tory, or  How  and  Leigh's  rather  brilliant  History  of  Rome, 
based  upon  Monimsen.  Beesley's  Gracchi,  Marius,  and 
Sulla,  Capes'  Early  Empire,  and  Jones'  Roman  Empire 
(Story  of  the  Nations)  are  good  for  reference  on  the  periods 
indicated.  The  author  has  found  Tucker's  Life  in  the  Ro- 
man World  the  best  book  on  Roman  life  for  fairly  mature 
students.  Davis'  Injiiience  of  Wealth  i)i  Imperial  Rome  is 
interesting  reading.  For  younger  students  perhaps  Preston 
and  Dodge's  Private  Life  of  the  Romans  is  less  unsatisfac- 
tory than  the  other  accounts.  The  Cambridge  (Sandys,  ed.) 
Companion  to  Latin  Studies  and  Dill's  books  on  life  during 
the  empire  are  valuable  reference  books  for  teachers.  On 
the  period  of  German  invasions  and  of  the  transition 
from  the  Roman  Empire  to  the  Feudal  Age  all  of  the 
general  references  given  on  page  348  are  good. 

The  following  suggestions  in  regard  to  supplementary 
materials  may  be  of  value  to  some  teachers.  The  author 
believes  that  the  students  will  learn  the  geography  of  any 
time  better  if  they  draw  the  maps  for  themselves,  using  a  set 
of  outline  maps,  with  color  crayons.  A  "blackboard  map" 
on  spring  rollers  is  a  great  convenience  in  explaining  loca- 
tions and  boundaries.  One  of  Europe  can  be  used  if  one  of 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  Tigris-Euphrates  basin  cannot 
be  procured.  The  best  single  wall  map  for  this  course  is 
a  large  map  of  the  Roman  Empire.  An  unmounted  map 
about  24  X  30  inches  can  be  obtained  for  little  more  than 
$1,  but  the  large  maps  on  spring  rollers  costing  from  $10 
to  $15  are  very  desirable.  The  best  supplementary  maps 
are  those  of  Alexander's  Empire  and  of  Europe.  Plans 
of  Rome  to  accompany  the  reconstruction  of  ancient  Rome, 
can  be  obtained  from  Mcmsieur  P.  Bigot,  Paris,  at  two  francs 
each. 

Harison  of  New  York  and  McKinley  of  Philadelphia 
publish   sheets   of  pictures,  notebook  size,  illustrating  an- 


SUGGESTIONS  TO   TEACHERS  xxi 

cient  life.  Among  the  foreign  books  that  are  usable  be- 
cause of  the  large  number  of  illustrations  are  Muzik  and 
Perschinka,  K^mst  und  Lehen  in  Altertum  (Freytag,  Leipzig, 
$  1.00),  and  Fougeres,  La  Vie,  privee  et  puhlique,  des  Grecs 
et  Romains  (Paris,  $3.50).  Some  of  the  German  sets  of 
historical  wall  pictures  are  superior  to  those  published  in 
this  country.  Among  the  best  are  the  Cybulski  charts 
illustrating  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities,  published  at  4 
marks  each,  the  Lehmann  historical  pictures  of  ancient  and 
mediaeval  civilization,  unmounted,  at  2.8  marks  each.^  Natu- 
rally these  cost  more  in  America.  Models  of  houses, 
siege  guns,  etc.,  can  be  obtained  in  the  Hensell  set  from 
G.  E.  Steckert  and  Co.,  New  York,  importers,  or  in  the 
Blumner  and  Rausch,  or  in  the  Rausch,  set  from  the  Ger- 
man manufacturers.  These  models  can  be  purchased  sepa- 
ately. 

Before  purchasing  books  for  libraries  teachers  should  get 
from  the  American  Library  Association  a  recent  list  of  cheap 
editions.  The  author  has  hesitated  to  make  many  of  these 
specific  recommendations,  but  he  believes  that  the  sugges- 
tions may  help  some  teachers,  and  he  has  not  been  influ- 
enced in  any  case  by  any  other  desire  than  that  of  bringing 
the  best  material  before  classes  that  care  to  use  this  book. 
It  has  been  impossible,  of  course,  to  include  the  titles  of 
many  valuable  books  that  are  only  a  little  less  useful  than 
some  of  those  that  have  been  mentioned. 

1  A  full  list  of  many  sets  of  pictures,  with  prices,  is  given  in  the  German 
catalogue  of  school  supplies,  Bihliotheca  Paedagogica  ($1.00),  Part  XI  (&). 
Many  models  are  listed  in  Part  XI  (a).  If  pictures  and  models  cannot 
be  obtained  through  Steckert  or  some  other  importer,  possibly  they  can 
be  obtained  through  Plahn'sche  Buchhandlung,  Eche  Oberwall  und 
Franzosischestrasse,  Berlin,  Centrum,  Germany.  Wholesale  orders  will, 
of  course,  be  filled  by  Brockhaus,  Leipzig,  Germany. 


INTRODUCTION 


of 


ANCIENT  CIVILIZATION 

Ancient  and  Modern  Civilization 

1.   Modern  Civilization  and  the  Past.  —  We  sometimes   Material 
think  of  our  present  civihzation  as  chiefly  a  product  of  P^^^^f^^ 

^  .  recent 

modern  times.  Because  the  steam  engine  and  the  tele-  centuries. 
phone,  the  automobile,  the  railroad,  and  the  United  States 
of  America  did  not  exist  two  centuries  ago,  we  do  not 
realize  how  great  the  world  was  before  that  time.  We  can 
travel  more  rapidly  than  our  ancestors.  Our  machines 
turn  out  shoes  and  cloth  and  steel  rails  at  a  rate  that 
our  ancestors  could  not  have  imagined.  We  enjoy  news- 
papers, personal  rights  and  pohtical  privileges  that  were 
unknown  a  few  centuries  ago.  Many  of  these  changes 
have  been  due  to  inventions,  and  are  therefore  forms  of 
material  progress,  which  is  an  important,  but  not  one  of 
the  best,  proofs  of  civihzation  (§  6) . 

The  main  question,  however,  is  this  :  have  these  changes  Are  we  more 
been  chiefly  in  our  surroundings  or  in  ourselves?     Al-  ^J^'^^^^^^d 

.  than  our  an- 

though  we  have  more  privileges  and  opportunities  and  cestors? 
rights  than  our  ancestors,  are  we  any  better?  We  have 
more  wealth  and  therefore  more  comforts  and  luxuries. 
Do  we  understand  life  better?  Are  we  better  educated, 
more  honest  and  more  humane?  Are  we  more  cultured, 
more  interested  in  our  fellow-man,  more  religious  and 
more  moral  ?  If  we  are  obliged  to  answer  most  of  these 
questions  negatively,  we  must  admit  that  we  are  not  more 
civilized  than  our  ancestors,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
material  progress  has  been  so  great  during  the  last  two 
centuries. 

3 


INTRODUCTION 


Ignorance, 
narrowness 
and  degra- 
dation in 
the  ancient 
world. 


Modern 
ideas  and 
methods  in 
ancient 
Babylon. 


Arts  and 
achieve- 
ments 
among  the 
ancient 
Egj'ptians. 


2.  Limitations  of  the  Ancient  World.  —  When  we  com- 
pare the  aneient  world  witli  that  of  to-day,  we  find  that 
ancient  people  lived  in  a  smaller  world  than  ours  in  almost 
every  way.  They  did  not  know  as  much  about  this 
planet  as  we  know,  nor  did  they  have  the  "  modern  im- 
provements "  which  we  justly  value  so  highly.  The 
known  world  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans  extended 
from  the  Indus  River  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  was 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  great  desert  of  Sahara. 
These  peoples  ot  long  ago  made  almost  everything  they 
needed  by  hand,  or  more  exactly  these  articles  were  made 
by  the  lower  classes  and  slaves  chiefly  tor  the  use  of  the 
rich  and  noble  classes  of  society.  Education  was  not 
common  except  among  the  boys  of  the  influential  families. 
The  individual  usually  had  no  rights  that  the  rulers  were 
bound  to  respect.  In  spite  of  these  differences  and 
limitations  we  are  surprised  to  find  how  much  we  owe 
to  the  people  of  ancient  times. 

3.  The  Modernness  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  —  Many 
of  the  methods  and  ideas  that  we  consider  most  modern 
are  very  old.  If  we  had  visited  ancient  Babylon  about 
forty  centuries  ago,  we  should  have  found  twelve  months 
in  a  year,  with  seven  days  in  each  week,  each  day  being 
divided  into  two  sets  of  twelve  hours  each.  The  mer- 
chants would  have  sold  us  goods,  using  weights  and  meas- 
ures not  radically  different  from  those  that  we  know. 
Business  was  conducted  a  good  deal  as  it  is  to-day,  even 
if  it  was  done  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  the  merchant  was 
forced  by  law  to  keep  his  contracts. 

Had  we  visited  ancient  Thebes  about  the  same  time  we 
should  have  found  that  the  Egyptians  were  famous  for 
their  literature,  their  glassware,  their  pottery  and  other 
fine  arts.  We  could  have  inspected  a  great  piece  of  en- 
gineering that  would  have  compared  very  favorably  with 
the  famous  dam  at  Assuan  in  Egypt  recently  constructed 


ANCIENT   AND   MODERN   CIVILIZATION  5 

by  English  engineers.  Near  Memphis  we  should  have 
found  the  pyramids,  still  more  marvellous  monuments  of 
the  skill  and  patience  of  these  people,  pyramids  that 
were  looked  upon  as  ancient  by  the  Egyptians  of  forty 
centuries  ago. 

4.  The  Modernness  of  the  Greeks.  —  It  is  not  to  the   Debt  to 
Egyptians   and   the   Babylonians   that   we   look  for   the  ^^^^  ^" 
civilization  that  we  borrowed  from  the  ancient  world.   Greeks  and 
It  is  to  the  Hebrews,  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans.     We  ^o^^^^^. 
do  not  need  to  discuss  our  great  debt  to  the  Hebrews. 

It  is  difficult  to  realize  how  much  we  owe  to  the  Greeks.   Develop- 
In  a  sense  the  Athenian  assembly  was  more  democratic  "^^^^^  °^     ^ 

"^  _  politics,  art, 

than  any  government  that  we  Americans  have  to-day,   literature, 
except   the   New  England   town   meetings.      The   Greek  P^^jos^phy 

^  ^  ^  .  .  and  science 

leagues  developed  the  idea  of  federation  which  we  used  among  the 
when  the  thirteen  colonies  first  formed  the  United  States  Greeks, 
of  America.  In  art  the  Greeks  were  a  long  way  ahead  of 
most  of  us  to-da}^  Their  philosophy  and  their  literature 
are  remarkably  fine.  Not  only  did  they  excel  in  their 
knowledge  of  geometry  and  of  astronomy,  but  in  sciences 
that  we  consider  distinctively  modern,  such  as  zoology 
and  physics,  they  came  a  great  part  of  the  distance  that 
we  have  been  able  to  travel. 

5.  The  Modernness  of  the  Romans.  —  To  the  Romans   The  Roman 
we   owe   less  and   yet  more ;  less  because  they  invented  f^^^^^j^^j®"^' 
very  little ;    more  because  they  brought  practically  the   legal  rights, 
whole  of  the  civilized  world  under  the  rule  of  one  of  the 
greatest  governments  in  the  history  of  all  times,  and  made 

the  whole  world  more  civilized.  Their  system  of  law, 
based  upon  Greek  philosophy,  is  still  in  use  among  most 
civilized  peoples.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  although  the 
Romans  did  not  have  the  political  privileges  in  regard  to 
voting  that  we  have  to-day,  in  some  ways  Roman  citizens 
had  more  personal  rights  than  we  who  boast  so  much  of 
our  individual  liberty. 


INTRODUCTION 


Means  by 
which  we 
may  meas- 
ure the 
degree  of 
ci^'ilization 
of  a  people. 


6.  Standards  of  Civilization.  —  It  is  not  easy  to  lay 
down  rules  by  which  we  shall  be  able  to  learn  whether 
people  are  civilized  or  not,  but  certain  standards  are 
usually  found  among  all  civilized  people.  Among  these 
STANDARDS  the  foUowing  may  be  mentioned  :  (1)  C'iviliza- 
tion  consists  in  what  a  man  or  a  society  is  much  more  than 
in  what  it  has.  (2)  No  people  are  civilized  simply  because 
a  few  men  are  great  statesmen,  or  writers,  or  artists ; 
because  the  whole  people  must  he  civilized,  not  a  few  mem- 
bers. (3)  Civilization  may  be  measured  by  the  material 
progress  of  a  people,  that  is,  by  the  improvement  of  rail- 
ways, the  construction  of  cities  and  the  development  of 
the  comforts  of  life.  (4)  A  still  better  standard  of  civil- 
ization is  the  general  well-being  of  the  people  as  a  whole. 
If  only  a  few  enjoy  all  of  the  advantages  of  the  wealth 
and  material  progress,  the  people  have  not  become  really 
civilized.  (5)  The  progress  of  humanity  can  be  measured 
by  the  social,  political  and  economic  institutions  of  a  people, 
for  institutions  are  to  a  society  what  organs  are  to  animals, 
and  no  one  can  doubt  that  animals  with  hearts  and  lungs 
and  brains  are  more  highly  developed  than  animals  that 
lack  those  organs.  (6)  Another  good  standard  is  the 
existence  of  culture  as  shown  in  the  literature  of  a  people  and 
its  art,  science  and  philosophy.  (7)  A  still  better  test 
of  civilization  is  shown  in  the  moral  and  religious  develop- 
ment of  a  people.  (8)  Finally,  no  people  are  really 
civilized  who  have  not  at  least  a  minimum  of  each  of  these 
"  elements  of  civilization  "  mentioned  above.  That  is, 
civilization  consists  in  a  good  combination  of  the  elements 
of  civilization  rather  than  a  considerable  development  of 
one  and  a  total  disregard  for  several  others. 


The  his- 
torical 


History  and  Prehistory 

7.  The  Records  of  History.  — We  must  keep  in  mind 
these  standards  as  we  study  the  story  of  different  peoples, 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN   CIVIi^IZATION  7 

but  we  must  not  expect  to  find  a  very  high  grade  of  civil-  period  of 
ization  among  the  earher  races  nor   must  we  expect  to   ?^^^  ^^^^^ 

.         based  on 

know  very  much  about  them.  Nowadays  we  have  m-  written 
numerable  newspapers,  books,  and  more  permanent  records. 
records  to  give  us  the  facts,  but  a  few  hundred  years  ago 
books  were  scarce  and  a  few  thousand  years  ago  they 
were  unknown.  We  can  trace  back  the  real  history  of 
mankind  by  the  means  of  written  records  only  a  little 
way :  only  about  two  thousand  years  for  our  ancestors ; 
less  than  three  thousand  for  the  ''classical"  nations,  the 
Romans  and  the  Greeks ;  and  only  a  little  more  than 
five  thousand  for  the  oldest  historical  "  civilization  "  of 
the  world.  This  record  of  historical  changes  which  we 
get  from  written  accounts  we  call  history. 

8.  The  Period  before  Written  Records.  —  Back  of  the  The  long 
dawn  of  history  in  Egypt  and  Greece  and  Britain,  lies  a  period*°"^ 
long  dark  period  in   which  men  lived  and  fought   and 
learned.     We  call  that  the  prehistoric  period  in  the  hfe 

of  man.  We  do  not  know  much  about  it,  and  yet,  all 
things  considered,  we  know  a  great  deal.  We  can  see  man 
struggling  up  from  the  lowest  savagery  to  barbarism,  from 
barbarism  to  a  life  of  useful  toil,  and  from  semibarbarism 
to  a  state  of  semicivilization.  Before  history  "  dawned  " 
in  Egypt,  there  were  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  strong  gov- 
ernments, well-organized  societies,  extensive  businesses, 
some  art  and  fairly  well-developed  religions.  These  things 
show  that  man  must  have  been,  to  some  extent,  civilized 
before  he  was  able  to  leave  written  records  by  which  we 
can  follow  his  travels  clearly. 

9.  Epochs  of  History.  —  When  we  look  off  toward  the  Ancient 
horizon,  we  see  easily  those  large  objects  that  make  up  S^^^'^^  ^^^ 
the  foreground.     Farther   away   objects   that   really  are  History, 
just  as  large  look  smaller  and  occupy  a  much  less  important 

place  in  our  field  of  vision.  Beyond  that  indefinite  line 
which  we   call   the   horizon,   stretch   limitless   distances. 


8 


INTRODUCTION 


The  epochs 
of  prehis- 
tory :  the 
old  stone 
age  and  the 
new  stone 
age. 


The  three 
great  ages 
in  the  his- 
tory of  the 
human  race. 


The  epochs  of  history  are  Uke  these  distances.  The  fore- 
ground, extending  l)ack  some  five  or  six  centuries,  we  call 
modern  history.  The  history  that  precedes  modern 
history,  covering  a  period  about  six  or  seven  times  as  long 
as  modern  history,  we  call  ancient  history.  ^  We  have  now 
reached  the  line  of  the  horizon.  Beyond  that  all  is  pre- 
historic. 

10.  Epochs  of  Prehistory.  —  The  prehistoric  period  is 
very  much  longer  than  the  historic  period.  How  long  it 
is  no  one  knows.  That  part  which  immediately  precedes 
the  period  which  we  call  ancient  history  is  known  as 
the  new  stone  age  or  the  ne-o-lith'ic  period.  It  is  com- 
paratively short,  and  all  of  those  ages  that  go  before  are 
called  the  old  stone  age  or  the  pa-le-o-lith'ic  period. 

11.  The  Ages  of  Stone  and  of  Metals.  —  It  is  said 
sometimes  that  man  has  passed  through  three  great  ages: 
the  old  stone  age,  the  new  stone  age,  and  the  age  of  metals; 
first  the  age  of  copper,  then  the  age  of  bronze  and  then  the 
age  of  iron.  The  age  of  metals  coincides  rather  roughly 
with  the  historic  period  of  any  people,  for  man  made 
rapid  progress  as  soon  as  he  gained  metals,  and  soon  had 
written  records  from  which  his  history  can  be  traced. 


*  Most  authors  prefer  to  have  a  period  between  the  Ancient  and  the 
Modern  that  thoy  call  the  Medieval  period  or  the  Middle  Ages.  Some 
place  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  as  early  as  376  a.d  ;  others,  as 
late  as  814  a.d.  Some  give  1453  as  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  others 
give  1492,  others  1520,  and  still  others  1789. 


PART  I 

THE  DAWN  OF  CIVILIZATION 


CHAPTER   I 


PREHISTORIC  MAN 

The  Old  Stone  Age 

12.  The  World's  Earliest  ''Civilization"— That  of  the  Early  tools: 
First  Tool-makers.  —  The  only  remaining  traces  of  early  ^^^ 
man   on    this    earth    are    the  scrapers, 

few  human  bones  that  are 
found  from  time  to  time  in 
widely  scattered  places.^  A 
great  interval  in  time  sepa- 
rates these  human  fragments 
from  the  traces  of  man  in  the 
next  period  —  the  man  who 
made  tools.  We  do  not  find 
any  of  the  bones  of  these 
early  tool-makers,  but  we  do 
find  "fist-hatchets/'  made  of 
flint,  rudely  chipped  so  that 
the  hatchet  could  be  held  in 
the  hand  and  used  for  cutting. 

We  find  also  flint  "  scrapers/'  The  Fist-hatchet, 

used  for  cutting  and  for  pre- 
paring skins.  Occasionally  flint  spear-heads  have  been 
found  also,  but  usually  these  primitive  men  must  have 
used  weapons  of  wood,  although  they  made  tools  of  rough 
stone.  It  is  possible  that  these  men  with  the  first  "  civi- 
lization" may,  have  had  fire  also,  and  it  is  probable  that 

1  Some  people  believe  that  the  "eoliths"  are  tools  made  by  man,  hun- 
dreds of  centuries  before  the  days  of  the  fist-hatchets. 

11 


12 


PREHISTORIC  MAN 


Iniitation 
as  11  means 
of  spread- 
ing civili- 
zation. 


Man  as  a 
hunter  used 
his  intelU- 
gence  and 
fought  with 
weapons. 


they  had  many  other  tools  and  products  of  more  perishable 
materials  than  the  stone  hatchets. 

13.  The  Spread  of  the  Earliest  Civilization.  —  At  the 
time  these  men  lived,  England  was  not  an  island,  for  the 
North  Sea  was  a  broad  low  valley.  Italy  was  also  con- 
nected with  Africa  across  Sicily.  The  tools  of  these 
early  men  w^re  carried  everywhere  and  we  find  that  men 
of  later  periods  who  lived  in  eastern  Europe,  in  Asia  and 
in  America  or  in  southern  Europe  and  in  Africa  used  tools 
very  much  like  these  '^  fist-hatchets."  So  the  civiliza- 
tion developed  b}^  a  few  men  was  spread  over  the  surface 
of  the  globe,  and  so  later  civilizations  and  ideas  were 
created  by  one  set  of  people  and  imitated  by  those  that 
followed,  for  it  is  much  easier  for  man  to  imitate  than  to 
create  something  for  himself.  The  use  of  fire  and  tools 
constituted  the  first  and  greatest  revolution  in  the  upward 
struggle  of  the  race. 

14.  Early  Man  and  his  Enemies.  —  Most  of  these  pre- 
historic men  lived  in  the  open,  preferably  near  a  river 
where  they  could  get  water,  and  where  fruits  were  abun- 
dant. Here  animals  came  along  the  trails  for  drink  and 
men  might  obtain  animal  food  by  lying  in  wait.  To 
protect  themselves  from  their  enemies  these  "  river  drift  " 
people  probably  lived  in  trees.  In  spite  of  his  long  hairy 
arms  with  their  sinewy  muscles  paleolithic  man  had  no 
natural  weapons  of  defence.  Since  he  was  inferior  in 
natural  strength  to  many  of  the  beasts  of  the  forest,  he 
was  obliged  to  defend  himself  by  his  superior  intelligence 
and  by  the  use  of  weapons  that  he  made  for  that  purpose. 
But  man  must  do  more  than  defend  himself  ;  he  must  find 
food,  and  at  least  half  of  the  year  this  food  must  be  chiefly 
the  flesh  of  animals.  With  his  club  and  his  spear  he  was 
a  worthy  antagonist  for  any  other  monarch  of  the  forest, 
though  he  usually  attacked  the  younger  animals  because 
they  were  killed  more  easily  and  were  more  tender.     In 


THE   OLD   STONE   AGE  13 

the  colder  weather  he  used  the  skins  of  his  victims  for 
clothing  'and  for  blankets. 

As  paleolithic  men  moved  about,  they  might  encounter  fero-   The  wild 
cious  beasts  :    "great  herds  of  elephants  of  an  ancient  kind,  the    animals  of 
mighty  predecessors,  perhaps  ancestors,  of  the  mighty  African    y^^  ^^^ . 
elephants,  would  perhaps  come  trampling  across  his  path  ;  he    the  time  of 
might  witness,    not   without   awe,   the   infuriated  rush   of   the    the  early 
soft-nosed  rhinoceros,  which   bore   a  horn   sometimes   as  much    tool-makers. 
as    three    feet    in    length ;     disporting    itself   in   the  rivers   was 
that  shy  behemoth,  the  hippopotamus,  the  mother  animal  swim-    , 
ming  with  her  young  upon  her  back  ;  sometimes  he  might  catch 
sight  of  the  great  sabre-toothed  tiger,  making  its  stealthy  spring, 
or  hanging,  with  its  great  overgrown  canines,  on  to  the  flanks  of  a 
strayed  elephant.     If  he  waited  by  the  water  places,  he  would 
be  able  to  watch  herds  of  bison,  wild  horses,  and  various  kinds 
of  deer,  the  Irish  elk  among  them,  as  they  came  to  drink." 

15.  The  Cold  drives  Men  into  Caves.  —  Probably 
some  of  the  men  of  this  period  that  we  have  just  con- 
sidered lived  in  caves,  driving  forth  the  fierce  cave  bear 
and  the  cave  hon.  In  time,  apparently,  cave  life  became 
the  custom  and  the  cave  continued  to  be  the  abode  of  pre- 
historic man  through  several  epochs.  These  cave  men  were 
contemporaries  of  the  mammoth,  the  reindeer,  the  woolly 
rhinoceros,  the  musk  ox  and  the  chamois,  which  are 
cold-weather  animals.  The  bison,  the  Avild  horse  and  a 
few  other  animals  survived  from  the  earlier  periods,  but 
the  elephants  and  the  hippopotami  had  moved  south. 
It  is  possible  that  the  approach  of  a  great  sheet  of  ice  from 
the  north,  with  its  accompanying  cold,  drove  man  into 
caves.  Hovv^ever  they  ma}^  have  come  there,  we  find  at 
different  depths  in  numerous  caves  in  western  Europe 
remains  of  tools  and  weapons,  evidences  of  fire,  the  bones 
of  man's  victims  and  occasionally  the  bones  of  man 
himself. 

16.  Life  and  Ideas  of  the  Cave  Men.  —  These  cave 
men  were  much  more  intelligent  than  their  remote  an- 


14 


PREHISTORIC  MAN 


Man's  tools 
are  poor 
but  he  be- 
gins to 
think  about 
reUgion. 


cestors.  Some  of  their  skulls  are  as  large  as  those  of 
present-day  savages  and  a  few  of  the  later  skulls  are  not 
very  different  from  the  skulls  of  Europeans  of  to-day. 
The  tools  of  the  cold  period  are  less  finished  than  those 
of  the  warm  periods  that  preceded  and  followed.  Man 
evidently  was  using  more  energy  in  getting  food  and  less 
in  making  tools.  He  was  an  untidy  housekeeper  in  his 
cave,  throwing  the  bones  about  when  he  had  picked  them 


A  Prehistoric  Painting. 

clean,  but  he  had  leisure  also  to  think  about  the  forces 
of  nature  and  about  himself.  We  find  some  skeletons 
in  these  caves  that  undoubtedly  were  buried  there.  Not 
only  were  they  buried  but  they  have  at  hand  tools  and 
implements  such  as  the  cave  men  had  used  in  life.  It 
is  difficult  to  believe  that  man  as  low  in  the  scale  of  civili- 
zation as  the  cave  men  believed  in  a  life  after  death,  and  yet 
that  is  the  natural  conclusion  to  draw.  Not  many  years 
ago  the  North  American  Indian  placed  at  the  side  of 
his  dead  comrade  the  weapons  and  other  objects  that 
the  dead  man  would  need  in  the  "  happy  hunting 
grounds." 


THE   OLD  STONE   AGE  15 

17.  The   Cave  Artists.  —  It  is   less  strange  that  man  Remarkably 
should  think  of  religion  than  that  he  should  become  an   ^^f^-like 

pictures  of 

artist.  Yet  the  pictures  that  later  cave  men  have  left  animals  of 
are  among  the  most  interesting  relics  of  the  distant  past,  the  cave 
A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  a  Spanish  nobleman  who  was 
interested  in  the  cave  men  visited  the  cave  of  Altamira 
in  northern  Spain.  He  was  accompanied  by  his  little 
daughter.  While  he  examined  the  floor  of  the  cave, 
he  was  startled  by  an  exclamation  from  the  child,  and, 
looking  up,  saw  a  wonderful  ceiling  painting  in  colors, 
of  bison,  deer  and  other  animals.  A  figure  from  this 
painting  is  given  on  the  opposite  page.  The  figures  are 
remarkably  life-like.  A  great  manj^  other  drawings 
have  been  found  since  that  time,  some  of  them  on  the 
walls  of  caves,  others,  of  a  later  date,  on  reindeer's 
horns  or  on  bone.  Human  figures  rarely  occur  among 
the  paintings,  but  occasionally  we  find  a  bone  or  stone 
figure  of  a  human  being,  usually  from  two  to  five  inches 
in  height. 

18.  Summary   of   Paleolithic    Civilization.  —  The   man  The  great 
of  the  old  stone  age  had  come  a  long  journey  and  had  ^^^leve- 
travelled  slowly.     He  had  probably  lived  on  the  earth  old  stone 
a  long  time  before  he  discovered  how  to  make  fire  and  how  ^^^' 

to  make  tools.  Later  he  developed  a  primitive  religion 
and  he  had  some  art.  During  this  period  he  must  also 
have  been  developing  a  language.  Paleolithic  man,  how- 
ever, had  very  little  civilization. 

The  New  Stone  Age 

19.  The   Kitchen   Middens.  —  The   Europeans  of  the  Shell  heaps 
new  stone  age  lived  in  a  Europe  that  was  little  different  ^^^  ^^^ 
in  geography,  products  and  climate  from  that  which  we 

know.  Some  of  the  most  interesting  remains  which  the 
Europeans  of  the  neoHthic  age  have  left  us  are  the 
"  Kitchen   Middens,"  a  series  of   bone   and  shell   heaps 


16 


PREHISTORIC   MAN 


Higher  civ- 
ilization of 
late  neo- 
lithic 
period. 


Huge  stone 
sepulchres 
and  the 
tools  they 
contained. 


near  the  shores  of  the  North  Sea.  These  are  sometimes 
as  high  as  ten  feet,  two  or  three  hundred  feet  wide  and 
a  thousand  feet  in  length.  They  are  made  up  chiefly  of 
oyster  or  mussel  shells  and  the  bones  of  fish  or  animals, 
the  flesh  of  which  was  used  for  food.  The  people  of  the 
Kitchen  Middens  do  not  exhibit  a  high  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion, yet  they  had  some  crude  pottery,  and  the  way  that 
bones  were  gnawed  shows  that  they  had  domesticated 
dogs. 

20.  The  Lake  Dwellings.  —  Of  a  somewhat  later  date 
than  the  Kitchen  Middens,  perhaps  4000  b.c,  are  the  lake 
dwellings  of  Switzerland  and  other  places.  Some  of  these 
villages,  built  on  piles  near  the  lake  shores,  were  destroyed 
by  fire  and  we  have  the  remains  of  bone  and  polished 
stone  instruments,  rude  pottery,  spindle  stones  or  whorls, 
woven  cloth,  and  half-baked  cereals.  These  people  were 
not  only  hunters,  but  the  women  at  least  had  some  skill 
in  pottery  making,  weaving  and  perhaps  the  cultivation 
of  grains. 

21.  The  Megaliths.  —  Some  of  the  neoHthic  folk  erected 
huge  stones,  sometimes  as  separate  shafts,  sometimes  in 
the  form  of  circles  and  often  as  rooms  made  of  a  few  huge 
upright  stones  with  great  slabs  across  the  top.  These 
rooms  are  called  dolmans,  and  were  used  for  the  burial  of 
the  dead.  Dolmans  are  found  in  Britain,  on  the  continent 
of  western  Europe,  in  northern  Africa,  and  in  Asia  as  far 
east  as  India.^  The  dead  man  was  provided  with  every- 
thing that  he  could  possibly  need,  for  prehistoric  man, 
like  some  savages  of  recent  times,  dreaded  nothing  more 
than  the  return  of  the  spirit  of  a  dead  person.     These  im- 


^  Sergi,  Mediterranean  Race,  p.  70,  believes  that  the  distribution  of 
the  dolmans  proves  that  they  were  erected  by  the  Mediterranean  race 
(§40).  One  rooont  writer  (Mos.so)  V)oIioves  that  the  dolmans  were  erected 
by  men  from  the  Mediterranean  along  the  trade  routes  from  north  Africa 
to  the  northern  part  of  Europe  and  Asia. 


THE   NEW  STONE   AGE 


17 


plements  show  that  the  dolmans  belong  to  a  comparatively 
recent  date,  but  they  do  not  tell  us  much  about  the  .people 
by  whom  they  were  erected. 

22.  Neolithic  Man  in  Crete.  —  It  is  easier  to  trace  the  Compara- 
development  of  neolithic  man  in  Crete  and  Egypt  than  ^^e^^i^hii^^ 
in  western  Europe.     Under  one  of  the  palaces  of  Crete   civilization 
excavations  have  shown  a  succession  of  neohthic  settle-  ^^  Crete, 
ments,  the  earhest  of  which  had  crude  pottery  and  spindle 
whorls,  and  a  finer  art  than  existed  in  Britain  at  a  similar 
period.     These  Cretans  were  probably  a  sea-faring  as  well 


^■S'^^k 

».»-«.»t'«j»»*- 

'^•-^'-^ 

;|^^.i 

'^    ** 

■f?^ 

fm 

^^r^g^ 

^  '  ':■:! 

^ 

Prehistoric  Egyptian  Vases. 


as  an  agricultural  people,  who  later  made  fine  grades  of 
pottery  and  traded  with  the  people  of  Egypt  and  the 
Orient. 

23.  Egypt  in  Neolithic  Times.  —  In  Egypt  we  find  gold   Neolithic 
and  copper  ore  used  for  several  thousand  years  before  the  [n^EKvVt^" 
dawn  of  the  world's  first  historic  civilization,   and  the 
valley  of  the  Nile  housed  a  progressive  population  that 
was  distinguished  in  the  neolithic  period  even  more  than 
were  the  Cretans  for  agriculture,  weaving  and  art. 

There  was  undoubtedly  a  considerable  trade   carried 
on  between  the  different  people  of  the  Mediterranean 


18 


PREHISTORIC  MAN 


Extensive 

trade  and 

migration 

during 

neolithic 

period. 


Rapid  prog- 
ress of 
mankind  in 
the  neo- 
lithic 
period. 


The  two 

paleolithic 

arts. 


General  use 
of  fire 
among 
paleolithic 
men. 


during  the  late  neolithic  period.  We  find  pottery  and 
other  works  of  art,  with  the  trade-mark  of  the  maker, 
very  far  from  the  place  where  they  must  have  been  made. 
Burial  customs  and  other  ideas  seem  to  have  spread  from 
one  locality  to  distant  places,  for  prehistoric  man  learned 
more  from  his  fellows  than  he  was  able  to  develop  for 
himself. 

24.  Summary  of  Neolithic  Civilization.  —  Neolithic 
men  lived  in  groups  or  villages.  They  had  domestic  animals 
such  as  the  dog,  the  ox  and  the  goat,  and  perhaps  others. 
They  cultivated  grains,  and  some  of  them  were  great  sailors. 
They  were  unacquainted  yet  with  metals,  hut  they  had  fine 
hone  and  polished  stone  instruments.  They  were  spinners 
and  weavers.  They  were  expert  hasket  Quakers  and  their 
pottery,  though  crude,  was  strong  and  serviceahle.  It  seems 
a  little  thing,  pottery,  yet  it  marks  the  beginning  of  a 
new  era,  in  which  man  was  becoming  rapidly  civilized. 
We  can  get  some  idea  of  the  way  that  man  was  developing 
his  ideas  of  art  and  religion  and  his  language  during  his 
period.  He  could  hardly  have  had  community  life,  as  he 
did,  without  the  use  of  words,  without  some  division  of 
labor,  and  some  development  of  trade. 

Prehistoric  Civilization 

25.  The  Making  of  Fire.  —  As  we  have  already  noticed, 
paleolithic  men  developed  two  practical  arts  that  carried 
man  rapidly  upward  in  the  scale  of  civilization.  The 
first  of  these  was  the  discovery  of  means  for  the  making  of 
fire.     The  second  was  the  art  of  making  tools. 

Any  one  who  has  struck  flint  with  steel  has  noticed  the 
succession  of  sparks  that  follow.  Prehistoric  man  worked 
a  great  deal  with  flints  in  making  his  tools,  but  he  used  a 
stone  hammer  and  did  not  get  his  fire  in  that  way.  Al- 
most all  prehistoric  men  had  fire  before  they  made  tools. 
Some  of  these  probably  saved  a  fire  started  by  lightning 


PREHISTORIC  CIVILIZATION  19 

and  kept  it  alive  religiously.  In  fact,  most  later  religions 
had  special  priestesses  whose  chief  duty  it  was  to  keep 
fire  burning  continuously. 

It  is  generally  agreed  among  archeologists  and  scientists  Creation 
that  fire  was  made  by  prehistoric  man  by  the  friction  of  ?^^^\^ 
wood  against  wood.     A  hard  pointed  stick  was  used  in  friction, 
the   hand   and   rubbed   against   a   strip   of   softer   wood. 
It  was  either  rubbed  rapidly  up  and  down  a  groove,  the 
httle  splinters  from  which  quickly  caught  fire,  or  it  was 
twirled  rapidly  in  the  hands.     Later  men  used  a  fire  drill 
and  cord  to  secure  a  rapid  and  continuous  whirling  motion. 
Occasionally  no  doubt  fire  was  obtained  by  striking  flint 
with  a  kind  of  iron-ore  called  iron  pyrites  (fire-iron). 

26.  Importance  of  Fire  in  the  Development  of  Civiliza- 
tion. —  It  is  difficult  to  overestimate  the  importance  of  fire. 
By  the  use  of  fire  it  was  possible  to  cook  food,  and,  by  smok- 
ing animal  flesh,  to  preserve  meat,  as  we  smoke  bacon,  ham 
or  beef  for  winter  or  a  time  of  scarcity.  Since  man  was  the 
hunter,  it  placed  upon  woman  the  necessity  of  gathering 
fuel  and  keeping  the  fire  alive.  This  tied  her  to  her  home. 
It  helped  to  create  a  semi-permanent  abiding  place  for 
man,  since  the  fireplace  drew  him  back  in  his  wanderings. 
It  made  possible  some  of  the  arts  which  later  were  the 
means  of  civilizing  man,  for,  without  fire,  metals  could 
never  have  been  used. 

27.  The    Making    of    Prehistoric    Tools.  —  Man    has   Eariy  stone 
been  called  the  only  tool-making  animal,   and  the  tool  *'^°^^- 

has  been  an  important  lever  in  the  uplifting  of  the  human 
race.  As  we  have  seen,  very  early  men  had  simple  stone 
hatchets  and  scrapers.  These  were  of  rough  flint,  fre- 
quently flaked  on  one  side  only.  Later,  lance-heads  were 
invented,  as  well  as  knives,  thin  stone  saws,  and  arrow- 
heads. 

In  the  making  of  these  tools,  primitive  man  would 
find  a  piece  of  flint  that  had  been  buried  in  the  ground 


20 


PREHISTORIC^   MAN 


Process  of 
making 
stone  tools. 


Improve- 
ment in 
stone  tools 
and  instru- 
ments 
during 
neolithic 
period. 


Basketry 
and  its  use 
with  clay 
for  cooking. 


Making  of 
the  first 
pottery. 


and  was  therefore  less  hard  and  less  brittle  than  those  on 
the  surface.  With  a  hard  stone  as  a  hammer  he  would 
hit  the  first  stone  a  succession  of  sharp  })lows  so  as  to 
dislodge  flakes.  He  would  then  have  an  edge  that  could 
be  used  for  cutting,  skinning  or  scraping.  Some  men 
who  were  more  expert  than  others  devoted  themselves  to 
tool-making.  We  have  found  the  work  shops  in  which 
many  of  these  tools  were  mad&,  with  the  stones  that  were 
used  for  hammers,  thousands  of  flakes,  and  many  half- 
completed  or  discarded  tools. 

In  the  later  prehistoric  period  these  tools  were  often  of 
very  fine  workmanship.  In  the  neolithic  period,  many 
of  them  were  polished  on  grindstones.  The  finest  orna- 
ments were  rubbed  down  with  pumice  stone  or  even  with 
wood.  Some  of  the  Egyptian  workmen  spent  years  of 
hard  labor  cutting  out  of  stone,  bracelets  in  the  form  of  a 
thin  ring.  Stones  were  hollowed  out  for  cooking,  soap- 
stone  being  the  best  for  this  purpose  because  it  would 
not  crack  in  the  heat.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  realize 
how  much  tools  did  for  man. 

28.  Basketry.  —  Paleolithic  man  developed  fire  and 
tools,  but  the  other  arts  of  civilization  came  after  his 
day.  One  of  the  earliest  of  these  was  the  art  of  making 
pottery,  for  pottery  is  found  in  almost  all  early  neolithic 
settlements,  but  never  as  yet  in  the  home  of  paleolithic 
man.  Long  before  man  learned  to  make  pottery,  how- 
ever, he  had  discovered  the  art  of  weaving  baskets. 
Some  baskets  were  lined  with  clay  mud  so  that  they  could 
be  filled  with  hot  stones  and  used,  like  the  earlier  stone 
cooking  pots,  for  boiling  flesh  foods.  Sometimes  the 
baskets  were  lined  inside  and  out  with  clay. 

29.  Pottery.  —  Perhaps  the  first  clay  pots  were  made  acci- 
dentally by  having  the  outer  or  inner  coat  of  clay  separate 
from  the  basketry  over  which  it  was  fashioned.  Primitive 
pottery  sometimes  shows  the  impression  of  basket  mold. 


PREHISTORIC  CIVILIZATION 


21 


Sometimes  the  pottery  was  made  by  coiling  a  rope 
of  wet  clay  around  and  around,  building  up  a  bowl  or 
vessel.  This  might  be  left  in  the  sun  to  dry,  but  was 
usually  baked  in  the  fire. 

Pottery  was  useful  for  many  purposes.  The  women 
drew  water  in  their  earthen  jars,  carrying  the  jars  on  their 
heads,  as  eastern  and  barbarous  women  do  to-day. 
Earthen  vessels  were  used  in  cooking,  for  they  could  be 
molded  in  any  desired  shape  and  they  withstood  heat  better 
than  any  stone.  Food  was  stored  in  earthenware  vessels. 
Pottery  was  used  for  ornament,  some  of  the  earliest  real 
art  being  found  in  the  artistically  shaped  vases  and  their 
ornamentation.  The  prehistoric  Egyptians  and  Cretans 
particularly  excelled  in  the  making  of  art-pottery. 

30.  Spinning  and  Weaving.  —  The  art  of  basket 
making  gave  early  man  some  lessons  in  the  preparation 
of  fibres  or  strands  and  the  interweaving  of  the  strands. 
We  are  not  surprised  then  to  find  that  the  earliest  neolithic 
men  had  bone  or  stone  rings  which  they  used  to  twirl 
threads  in  spinning,^  and  sticks  (spindles)  upon  which 
they  wound  the  finished  thread.  Gradually  they  learned 
to  weave  the  threads  into  cloth  .^ 

These  acts  were  not  perfected  at  once,  for  the  earliest 
thread  was  very  rough  and  the  early  cloth  was  ^undoubtedly 
inferior  to  fine  basketry.  Before  cloth  was  invented,  skins 
or  basketry  was  used  for  clothing,  mats  and  covering. 

^  The  earliest  thread  was  probably  made  of  beaten  bark,  the  loosened 
fibres  being  bound  into  a  thread  by  twisting  them  rapidly  between  the 
two  hands.  Later  other  plant-fibres  were  used.  The  ends  of  the  fibres 
were  attached  to  the  stone  spinning  whorl,  which  was  rotated  rapidly. 
When  the  fibres  had  been  twisted  into  a  thread,  the  thread  was  wound 
around  a  stick  which  later  became  a  spindle. 

2  In  weaving,  a  number  of  these  threads  were  held  parallel,  an  equal 
number,  alternating  with  the  first,  were  attached  at  one  end  to  a  stick. 
By  raising  and  lowering  this  stick  it  was  possible  to  thrust  a  bone  bob- 
bin in  between  these  two  sets  of  threads  and  draw  taut  the  thread 
attached  to  the  bobbin  or  shuttle. 


Uses  of 
pottery. 


Use  of 

stone 
spinning 
whorls  and 
primitive 
spindles. 


Improve- 
ment in 
cloth  and 
clothing  due 
to  weaving. 


22 


PREHISTORIC   MAN 


At  a  comparatively  early  date,  bone  needles  were  u?ed  to 
sew  skins  together,  probably  with  sinews  or  leather  strips 
(thongs).  As  man  became  more  settled  or  as  wild  ani- 
mals became  less  numerous,  he  was  forced  to  use  fibre- 
producing  plants  or  fleece-bearing  animals,  depending  on 
his  knowledge  of  spinning  and  weaving  to  furnish  him  the 
cloth  and  draperies  that  he  wanted.  In  Egypt  we  have 
found  some  fine  linen  cloth  of  the  neolithic  period. 

31.  The  Domestication   of  Animals.  —  Paleolithic  man 
apparently  had  no  domestic  animals,   unless  occasional 


Prehistoric  Horse. 


Domestica- 
tion of  the 
dog,  man's 
first  domes- 
tic animal. 


pets  or  wounded  game  kept  for  future  use  might  be  con- 
sidered domestic.  To  the  end  of  his  epoch  he  remained 
a  hunter  and  a  savage.  Among  European  neolithic  men 
we  find  the  first  domesticated  dogs.^ 

Some  of  the  later  neohthic  peoples  not  only  kept 
wounded  animals,  but  trapped  them  alive.  If  they  gave 
milk,  as  the  goat  or  the  cow,  or  produced  fleece,  as  the  goat 

^  It  has  been  suggested  that  these  ancient  hunters  wore  usually 
followed  by  packs  of  wild  dogs  who  shared  in  tha  spoils.  As  the  dog 
loves  companionship,  some  of  these  wild  creatures  may  in  time  easily 
have  abandoned  the  pack  for  man,  who  was  a  better  hunter  and  provider- 


PREHISTORIC   CIVILIZATION 


23 


or  the  sheep,  they  would  be  prized  by  the  women,  since 
they  would  lighten  the  labor  of  obtaining  food  and  secur- 
ing a  supply  of  material  for  spinning.  Having  dogs  to 
guard  these  valuable  creatures,  they  allowed  the  flocks 
to  increase  and  'prehistoric  man  became  a  shepherd.  He 
also  began  to  ride  the  fat  ponies  that  formerly  he  had 
killed  for  food.  He  was  still  a  nomad,  wandering  from 
one  pasture  to  another,  and  probably  still  a  hunter; 
but  he  had  not  only  domesticated  animals,  for  he  was  him- 
self becoming  domesticated.  And  this  was  the  work  of 
primitive  woman. 

32.  The  Domestication  of  Plants.  —  Early  man  lived 
chiefly  on  flesh  food,  being  particularly  partial  to  fat. 
But  in  summer,  and,  in  general,  in  warm  chmates, 
he  used  the  fruit  and  the  nuts,  the  yams  and  the  berries, 
the  edible  bulbs  and  roots  that  the  women  gathered.  We 
can  imagine  primitive  woman  bringing  to  her  fireplace  a 
basket  full  of  seeds  at  harvest  time.  She  may  have  been 
obliged  to  carry  the  filled  basket  a  long  distance  strapped 
upon  her  shoulders,  for  her  lord  and  master  chose  an 
abiding-place  near  a  good  hunting  ground  and  was  indif- 
ferent to  the  distance  from  the  meadow  where  seed- 
grasses  grew.  The  seeds  were  deposited  in  baskets  or 
jars  for  use  in  the  winter  perhaps,  although  primitive 
people  are  notoriously  improvident,  eating  what  is  at 
hand  and  letting  the  morrow  take  care  of  itself. 

Perhaps  some  of  these  seeds  were  spilled  on  the  trail 
or  scattered  accidentally  near  the  camp.  The  next 
year  they  sprouted,  and,  if  the  camp  had  not  been  moved, 
the  woman  gathered  part  of  her  grain  nearer  home. 
After  a  time  she  noticed  that  the  blades  sprouted  from  the 
seed.  Then  she  scattered  seeds,  and  after  a  time,  a  few 
hundred  or  thousand  years  perhaps,  some  woman  scratched 
up  the  ground  or  even  dug  holes  for  the  seeds  with  the 
sharp-pointed  stick  that  she  had  used  for  digging  roots, 


Domestica- 
tion of 
animals  that 
gave  milk 
or  produced 
fleece. 


Vegetable 
foods  of 
early  man, 
and  the 
labor  of 
gathering 
wild  prod- 
ucts. 


How  primi- 
tive woman 
may  have 
learned  to 
plant  and 
to  plow. 


24 


PREHISTORIC   MAN 


Domesti- 
cation of 
plants  and 
animals 
breaks  up 
nomadic  life 
and  estab- 
lishes fixed 
abodes  for 


Men  must 
communi- 
cate with 
one  another 
as  they 
become 
civilized 
and  settled. 


SO  that  fewer  of  them  would  die  and  more  would  sprout. 
Gradually  the  stick  was  used  like  a  pick  or  an  adze,  to 
rip  up  the  ground  ready  for  planting.  After  another 
interval,  during  which  animals  were  domesticated,  an  ox 
was  attached  to  this  curved  stick,  and  humanity  had  its 
first  plow.  Plows  like  these  are  used  now  among  some 
savage  tribes  and  were  used  in  early  historic  times  among 
the  Egyptians. 

33.  Importance  of  the  Domestication  of  Plants  and 
Animals.  —  With  the  domestication  of  plants  as  well 
as  animals,  primitive  man  was  no  longer  obliged  to  roam 
far  afield  for  food.  As  population  increased  and  game 
was  killed  off,  the.  men  lost  their  former  occupation  and 
gradually  turned  their  attention  to  grazing  or  agriculture. 
Domestic  duties  of  women  also  increased  as  homes  became 
established.  So  man  passed  from  the  hunting  stage  to  the 
pastoral  stage  and  from  the  pastoral  stage  to  the  agricultural 
stage  of  life. 

34.  Language.  —  It  would  not  be  reasonable  to  expect 
that  man  would  make  all  the  progress  which  we  have 
noted  in  the  preceding  sections  without  having  learned 
new  and  better  ways  of  communicating  with  his  fellows. 
At  all  times  he  must  have  used  cries  and  exclamations 
and  probably  sign  language  to  convey  his  meaning. 
But  he  had  other  messages  that  he  wished  to  deliver 
and  other  ideas  that  he  wished  to  express.  These  were 
perhaps  conveyed  by  sounds  that  would  correspond 
somewhat  to  the  idea  conveyed.  These  sounds,  or 
syllables,  or  words,  may  have  been  names  of  objects,  as 
the  cow  or  the  pig,  the  bow  or  the  arrow ;  or  they  may 
have  conveyed  ideas,  as  fear,  strength  or  death.  Some 
races  developed  language  much  farther  than  others,  and 
the  others  undoubtedly  borrowed  from  them,  but  the 
number  of  dialects  was  very  great  and  the  number  of  well- 
developed  languages  was  very  few. 


PREHISTORIC  CIVILIZATION  25 

35.  Writing.  —  The   cave   men   of   Spain   and   France  Deveiop- 
may  have  been  among  the  earUest  of  our  picture  writers,  "^^^^^j.^^ 
but  the  excellence  of  their  drawing  would  seem  to  show  writing  or 
that  they  had  many  predecessors.     Picture  writing  was  language, 
the  earhest  form  in  which  men  tried  graphically  to  express 

their  ideas.  It  was  easier  perhaps  to  draw  a  bird  than 
to  invent  a  word  that  would  mean  "  bird."  Picture 
writing  is  found  among  most  primitive  people  at  present 
and  was  an  important  means  of  telling  a  story  in  early 
times. 

In  some  cases,  perhaps  even  before  neolithic  man  dis-  Word  char- 
appeared,  because  men  began  to  use  metals,  the  picture  ^f^pg^^f^ 
of  an  object  would  be  simplified  into  a  character,  something  word  pic- 
like the  object,  that  would  represent  the  object.     These  *^^®^" 
characters  for  words  are  found  in  many  early  written  lan- 
guages (§§  52,  98)  and  in  Chinese  at  present. 

36.  The  Alphabet.  —  When  the  character  was  used  to  Transition 
represent  a  sound  rather  than  a  word,  mankind  reached  a  f^*?^  fl^^" 

'  .  tone  times 

still  further  stage  in  the  development  of  that  marvellous   from  word 
means    of    communication,    the    alphabet.     Perhaps    the  characters 

'        ,  ...  to  sound 

marks  of  makers  of  pottery  in  prehistoric  times  or  the  characters 
signs  or  marks  used  by  early  sailors  and  traders  may  be  °^  letters, 
found  to  have  some  connection  with  the  transition  from 
word-writing  to  sound-writing  which  ended  in  the  alpha- 
bet, in  written  language,  in  literature  and  in  all  of  the 
progress  of  mankind  that  has  come  from  the  written 
scroll  or  the  printed  page. 

Man  at  the  Dawn  of  History 

37.  Prehistoric    and    Historic    Periods.  —  If    we    look  Ea^h  period 

in  the  hie 

back  over  this  long  period  of  prehistoric  development  and  of  man  is 

forward  to  the  present,  we  are  impressed  with  the  fact  !{jg^*re- 

that  humanity  has  moved  forward  and  upward  with  in-  ceding  and 

creasing  speed  as  it  has  advanced.     The  first   age,    the  ^^*  shows 

,  more  prog- 

paleolithic  period,  was  very  long  and  the  progress  of  man-  ress. 


26 


ANCIENT  CIVILIZATION 


The  three 
great  races, 
white,  yel- 
low and 
black. 


The  classi- 
cal division 
of  the 
white  race 
into  Indo- 
European, 
Semitic 
and  Ha- 
mitic  races. 


kind  seems  infinitesimal.  The  second  prehistoric  period, 
the  neolithic  period,  was  much  shorter,  and  was  much 
more  productive  of  results,  yet  at  the  l)eginning  of  history 
man  had  come  only  a  little  way.  The  ancient  period  of 
history  was  shorter  than  the  neolithic  age,  but  a  wonderful 
new  civilization  was  developed  and  was  spread  over  a 
fair  part  of  the  eastern  hemisphere.  The  modern  period 
is  much  shorter  than  the  ancient,  but  in  five  hundred 
years  it  has  already  changed  the  life  of  civilized  man  as 
much  as  life  was  changed  in  50  centuries  of  the  ancient 
world. 

38.  The  Races  of  Men  According  to  Color.  —  Men  may 
be  divided,  according  to  color,  into  the  white,  the  yellow 
and  the  black  races.  Europe  is  distinctly  the  continent 
of  the  white  race ;  Africa,  of  the  black ;  and  Asia,  of  the 
yellow  race.  Yet  northern  Africa  and  western  Asia  were, 
and  still  are,  inhabited  by  men  of  the  white  race. 
This  book  tells  the  story  primarily  of  those  successive 
civilizations  of  the  white  race  which  arose  on  the  borders 
of  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  especially  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates.  We  shall  follow  the  spread 
and  the  further  development  of  this  "  western  civiliza- 
tion "  through  Greece,  and  Rome,  and,  much  later,  the 
final  development  of  this  civilization  in  western  Europe 
and  in  America  by  another  branch  of  the  white  race. 

39.  The  Old  Classification  of  Races  According  to  Lan- 
guage. —  A  generation  ago  all  white  men  were  classified 
as  Indo-European,  Se-mit'ic  or  Ha-mit'ic.  We  must  re- 
member the  classification,  not  only  because  it  is  important, 
but  for  the  reason  that  most  historical  literature  makes 
these  distinctions,  which  we  otherwise  would  not  under- 
stand. The  Hamitic  race  was  the  race  to  which  the 
Egyptians  belonged.  The  Semites  included  the  Arabs, 
the  Ba})ylonians,  the  Assyrians,  the  Hebrews  and  the 
Syrians  from  southwestern  Asia.     The   Indo-Europeans 


MAN  AT   DAWN   OF  HISTORY  27 

included  all  of  the  peoples  from  India  to  Ireland,  all  of 
whom  speak  similar  languages.  The  westernmost 
branch  of  this  race  were  known  as  the  Celts.  The 
next  was  called  the  Teu'tons  and  those  in  eastern  Europe 
were  called  Slavs.  In  southern  Europe  was  the  Grceco- 
Roman  branch,  and  in  Asia  the  Persian  and  the  Indian. 

40.  A  more  Recent  Classification  of  White  Men.  —  More  Present 
recent  investigations  of  the  peoples  of  the  so-called  Indo-  ^(^ssifi^a- 

^  .  .  tion  of 

European  race  have  shown  that,   while  their  languages   races. 
are  related,   the  people   themselves   are  not   necessarily  ^editerra- 

*'     nean  race. 

related.  Many  scholars  believe  that  there  are  three 
great  groups  of  men  in  Europe.  The  southernmost  of 
these  is  the  Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an  race,  which  came  probably 
from  northern  Africa.  It  includes  most  of  the  people 
who  developed  the  civilizations  of  ancient  history,  for 
it  includes  the  Egyptians,  the  Cretans  and  many  of  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans.^  These  Mediterranean  men 
are  short  and  dark  complexioned. 

A  second  race  is  called  sometimes  the  AVpine.    They  are  Alpine 
a  hill  people,  devoted  to  grazing,  as  the   Mediterranean  ^^^' 
men    are    to    the    lowlands    and    to    agriculture.      They 
extend  from  western  Europe   along  the  Alpine  foothills 
eastward  into  the  plateaus  of  western  Asia. 

The  third  race  comprises  the  tall,  fair-haired  and  fair-  The  Nordic 
skinned    people    who    now    dominate    northern    Europe  ^^^^' 
from   England  east   to   the   Baltic  Sea   and    the   Vistula 
River.     They  are  sometimes  called  Nor'dic  or  Teu-ton'ic. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  we  do  not  know  very  much   Present 
about  the  race    composition   of   the   populations  of   our  "^^^♦^"5®  o^ 

^  ^     ^  races  in 

present  countries  of  Europe.     Italy,  Greece,  Asia  Minor  Europe, 
and  Egypt  are  still  inhabited  chiefly  by  men  of  the  Med- 
iterranean  race.     England,  Germany  and  especially  the 

*  It  included  also  probably  the  people  who  developed  the  best  of  the 
neolithic  civilization.  Some  authorities  think  that  the  Semitic  people 
are  closely  related  to  Mediterranean  man. 


28 


ANCIENT   CIVILIZATION 


Periods  in 
the  life  of 
the  human 
race. 


Paleolithic 
man. 


Xeolithic 
man. 


Scandinavian  peninsulas  are  largely  Nordic,  central  and 
southeastern  Europe  are  largely  Alpine,  but  no  race  is 
''  pure,"  for  apparently,  like  the  American  people,  the 
people  of  every  country  of  Europe  are  a  mixture  of  several 
races. 

41.  Summary.  —  Mankind  has  had  a  long  and  interest- 
ing experience  on  this  earth.  This  experience  may  be 
divided  into  the  historic  period,  composed  of  modern 
history,  the  last  five  or  six  centuries,  and  ancient  history, 
the  fifty  centuries  before  that  time.  Before  ''  history  " 
began  we  have  the  prehistoric  periods,  the  last  of  which 
we  call  neolithic,  the  new  stone  age,  at  least  ten  thousand 
years  in  length,  and  the  earlier  of  which,  a  much  longer 
period,  we  call  the  paleolithic,  or  old  stone  age.  When 
we  study  the  tools  of  man  we  divide  the  life  of  the 
race  into  three  periods ;  the  old  stone  age,  the  new  stone 
age  and  the  age  of  metals,  first  copper,  then  bronze  and 
then  iron. 

Almost  the  earliest  traces  of  man  show  that  he 
understood  the  making  and  the  use  of  fire.  Soon  after 
this,  man  made  rude  tools,  fist-hatchets  and  scrapers. 
He  lived  in  caves,  dressed  in  skins,  ate  animal  flesh  and 
fruits,  carved  figures  on  the  rock  and  believed  that  man 
has  a  spirit  which  survives  after  death.  He  hunted  the 
cave  bear,  the  aurochs  or  bison,  the  sabre-toothed  tiger, 
the  rhinoceros,  the  little  horse  and  the  reindeer. 

Neolithic  man  Hved  in  huts,  sometimes  grouped  together 
in  villages.  He  made  fine  polished  stone  tools  and  weap- 
ons. He  domesticated  the  dog,  the  goat,  the  sheep  and 
the  ox.  He  began  to  cultivate  grains  and  to  make  a  rude 
plow.  He  spun  thread  and  wove  cloth,  made  baskets 
and  rude  pottery.  Neolithic  man  was  much  more  civil- 
ized in  Egypt,  Crete  and  in  th(^  neighborhood  of  the 
Caspian  Sea  then  he  was  in  western  Europe. 

PaleoHthic    man   took   two    important   steps   upward. 


PREHISTORIC  MAN  29 

He  learned  to  make  fire  and  he  learned  to  make  tools.   Fire  and 
He  made  fire  usually  by  friction,  by  rubbing  or  twirling  J^^g^^^^^^^^^g 
a  hard  stick  against  soft   wood.     He  guarded  fire  reli-  of  paieo- 
giously.     The  need  of  fire  kept  men  from  wandering  as  !j!^^J.^^^'" 
much  as  they  had  done.     Fire  tied  woman  to  the  fire- 
place and  helped  in  the  development  of  the  arts.     Tools 
were  made  usually  from  flint.     They  protected  man  from 
his  enemies  and  enabled  him  to  cut  wood  and  stone  for 
use  in  arts  and  for  shelter.     They  gave  man  something 
to  work  with  and  something  to  work  for. 

Man  became  settled,  first  in  a  general  way,  when  he   Man  be- 
began  to  make  pottery,  to  spin  and  to  weave.     When  he   g^J^^^^ 
domesticated  animals  he  took  the  next  step  in  becoming  through 
settled,  for  he  was  not  obliged  to  go  abroad  for  food  Jl^^f^fi^JJ^of' 
or  for  materials  for  clothing.     With  the  help  of  the  dog,   animals  and 
he  became  a  shepherd,  and,  with  the  help  of  the  ox,  he  p^^^^^- 
became  a  farmer,  with  a  truly  settled  abode,  as  soon  as 
he  had  domesticated  plants.     He  now  wanted  land  of  his 
own,  a  hut,  and  his  own  tools ;  consequently  men  began  to 
live  in  communities,  began  to  make  laws  and  to  have  gov- 
ernments.    Men  learned  to  exchange  their  surplus  prod- 
ucts for  those  of  others.      Most  of   this   work  was  done 
by  the  women,  who  worked  while  the  men  hunted.     They 
were  not  treated  very  humanely  by  their  husbands,  and 
j^et  monogamous  marriages  were  the  rule  even  in  prehis- 
toric times. 

With  the  development  of  a  spoken  language  and  the  Language, 
transition  from  pictures  to  picture  writing,  from  picture  ^^d\Te 
writing  to  word  or  character  wTiting,  and  from  characters  discovery 
to  letters,  man  reached  the  threshold  of  history.     About  oJ^J^als^ 
the  time  that  he  learned  to  use  metals,  he  emerged  from 
the  darkness  of  the  prehistoric  period. 


30  ANCIENT  CIVILIZATION 

General  References  ^ 

Sollas,  Ancient  Hunters,  esp.  chapters  II,  V,  VI,  VIII,  X,  XI, 
XIII,  XIV. 

Joly,  Man  before  Metals. 

Tylor,  Anthropology. 

Starr,  First  Steps  in  Human  Progress. 

Clodd,  The  Story  of  Primitive  Man. 

Duckworth,  Prehistoric  Man. 

Peet,  Rough  Stone  Monuments  and  their  Builders. 

Mason,  The  Origins  of  Invention. 

Mason,  Woman's  Share  in  Primitive  Culture. 

Boas,  The  Mind  of  Primitive  Mau. 

Thomas  (ed.),  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins. 

McCurdy,  Antiquity  of  Man  in  Europe. 

Munro,  Paleolithic  Man. 

Chapin,  Social  Evolution ;    The  Prehistoric  Period. 

Topics 

The  Cave  Artist:  MaeCurdy,  Antiquity  of  Men  in  Europe 
(in  Smithsonian  Report  for  1909),  547-563;  Munro,  Paleolithic 
Man,  200-240;    Sollas,  Ancieiit  Hunters,  222-264. 

Origin  and  Development  of  Tools:  Tylor,  Anthropology, 
182-205;  Mason,  Origins  of  Invention,  121-151;  Thomas  (ed.), 
Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,  335-372. 

Studies 

1.  History  and  civilization,  Morey,  Outlines  of  Greek  His- 
tory, 11-14. 

2.  The  fist-hatchet.     Sollas,  Ancient  Hunters,   113-120. 

3.  The  geography  and  the  animals  of  Europe  long  ago.  Sollas, 
Ancient  Hunters,  92-98. 

4.  The  cave  man  as  an  artist.  MaeCurdy,  G.  G.,  in  Century, 
84  (1912),  439-448. 

5.  The  Kitchen  Middens.  Clodd.  Story  of  Primitive  Man, 
94-96. 

6.  The  lake  dwellings.     Clodd,  Primitive  Man,  131-143. 

7.  Dolmans  and  other  neoliths  in  Italy  and  France.  Mosso, 
Dawn  of  Mediterranean  Civilization,  244-250. 

1  Students  may  be  interested  in  Waterloo's  Story  of  Ab  and  A  Son  of 
the  Ages. 


PREHISTORIC  MAN  31 

8.  The  builders  of  the  megahthic  monuments.     Peet,  Rough 
Stone  Monuments,  129-142. 

9.  The  neolithic  population  of  Crete,     Mosso,  Mediterranean 
Civilization,  92-102. 

10.  Dress  of  women  in  the  Neolithic  Age.  Mosso,  Mediter- 
ranean Civilization,  185-197. 

11.  The  making  of  fire.     Tylor,  Anthropology,  260-264. 

12.  The  ancient  art  of  basketry.  Mason,  Wo?nan's  Share  in 
Primitive  Culture,  41-52. 

13.  Basketry  and  pottery.  Starr,  First  Steps  in  Human 
Progress,  50-57. 

14.  The  domestication  of  plants.  Thomas  (ed.).  Source  Book 
for  Social  Origins,  98-112. 

15.  The  domestication  of  animals.  Tylor,  Anthropology, 
214-221. 

16.  The  development  of  writing,  Starr,  First  Steps  in  Human 
Progress,  192-207. 

17.  The  races  of  men.     Chapin,  Social  Evolution,  217-220. 

Questions 
(For  Introduction  and  Chapter  I) 

1.  Has  mankind  made  uniform  progress  upward,  or  has  he 
advanced  more  in  some  periods  than  in  others  ? 

2.  Name  the  most  important  civilizations  since  the  beginning 
of  history. 

3.  Name  five  standards  by  which  we  can  judge  the  progress 
made  by  man. 

4.  How  is  the  experience  of  mankind  subdivided?  Give  the 
divisions  of  history ;    the  divisions  of  prehistory. 

'  5.  Why  do  the  rough  stone  fist-hatchets  and  scrapers  repre- 
sent the  earliest  civilization  ?  Was  that  civilization  spread 
widely,  during  the  old  stone  age  ?     after  the  old  stone  age  ? 

6.  Make  a  little  table  showing  in  one  column  why  the  "river 
drift"  man  lived  near  the  rivers,  in  a  second  column  the  tools  or 
weapons  that  he  had,  and  in  a  third  the  animals  among  which 
he  lived. 

7.  How  do  we  know  that  the  early  cave  men  were  more  civil- 
ized than  the  "river  drift"  men?  that  the  later  cave  men  had 
a  better  civilization  than  the  early  cave  men  ? 

8.  Was  paleolithic  man  civilized,  according  to  the  standards 


32  ANCIENT  CIVILIZATION 

named  in  §  6  ?     What  did  neolithic  man  add  to  the  civilization 
of  his  predecessors  ? 

9.  How  do  you  account  for  the  fact  that  the  neolithic  civili- 
zation of  the  eastern  Mediterranean  was  more  advanced  than 
that  of  western  Europe  in  the  same  period  ? 

10.  Do  we  learn  chiefly  by  inventing  tools  and  methods,  or 
by  learning  from  others  ?  Should  we  expect  man  to  make  more 
or  less  progress  within  a  certain  time  as  he  became  more  civilized  ? 

11.  Did  fire  benefit  men  more  than  women  ? 

12.  What  did  tools  do  for  man? 

13.  Trace  the  evolution  of  the  hatchet  from  the  fist-hatchet 
to  the  stone  hatchet  with  a  handle,  and  to  our  steel  hatchets  of 
the  present. 

14.  How  was  the  art  of  pottery-making  dependent  on  that  of 
basket-weaving  ?  How  was  the  spinning  and  the  weaving  of 
cloth  also  dependent  on  basketry  ? 

15.  As  man  ceased  to  be  a  hunter,  how  did  he  get  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  power  to  cultivate  fields  ?  Show  how  the  domestication 
of  animals  is  related  to  these  needs  of  man. 

16.  Why  is  the  pastoral  stage  of  civilization  higher  than  the 
hunting  stage,  and  the  agricultural  stage  higher  than  the  pastoral 
stage  ? 

17.  Name  the  chief  steps  in  the  development  of  a  spoken  lan- 
guage ;    those  in  the  development  of  writing. 

18.  Show  on  a  map  the  location  of  the  chief  races  of  white 
men  to-day. 

19.  What  is  the  chief  interest  in  the  prehistoric  period  ?  the 
chief  value  ? 


edness  of 
Europe  to 


CHAPTER   II 
THE   DAWN  OF   HISTORY 

42.  The  Origins  of  Western  Civilization.  —  We  think   The  indebt- 
of  Europe  as  the  most  civihzed  of  the  continents  of  the 
modern  world.     The   civilization  of   Europeans,   and  of  Egjpt, 
men  of  European  race  in  the  new  world,  we  call  western  ^^byioma 
civilization,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  civilizations  of  the  tine. 
Far  East,  of  India,  of  China  and  of  Japan.     Although  this 
western  civilization  was  developed  chiefly  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  its  beginnings  we  find,  not  in  Europe  at 
all,  but  in  Africa  and  in  Asia.     It  is  to  Egypt  that  we  look 
for  the  earliest  of  the  ancient  civilizations,  a  civilization 
to  which  the  Greeks  owed  much.     In  Babylonia  and  in 
Palestine  were  developed  many  ideas  regarding  business 
and  religion  which  we  use  daily.     To  understand  western 
civilization,  then,  we  must  devote  some  attention  to  these 
early  peoples  outside  of  Europe. 

Ancient  Egypt 

43.  The  Influence  of  the  Nile.  —  Herodotus,  "  the  The  valley 
father  of  history,"  more  than  2000  years  ago,  called  Egypt 
the  gift  of  the  Nile.  This  Nile  valley  is  long  and  narrow, 
and  is  bounded  by  limestone  cliffs,  beyond  which  lies  the 
desert.  The  cultivated  area  is  about  seven  hundred  miles 
in  length  and  from  ten  to  thirty  miles  wide,  except  at  the 
Delta,  the  triangular  area  formed  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Nile  by  mud  brought  down  by  the  river.  As  Egj'pt  is  a 
land  of  little  rain  and  considerable  sunshine,  it  too  would 
have  been  a  desert  but  for  the  fact  that  the  Nile  overflows 
its  banks. 

D  33 


of  the 
Nile. 


34 


THE  NEAR  EAST 


How  the 
Nile  floods 
the  land 
and  leaves 
a  deposit 
of  fertile 
mud. 


The  local 
districts 
and  the 
two  Egypts. 


The  Nile  rises  in  Africa  near  the  equator.  It  has 
tri])utarie.s  that  bring  down  freshets  from  the  mountains 
of  east  Africa.  It  flows  through  Egypt  at  a  depth  of 
about  30  feet  below  the  level  of  the  valley.     In  June  the 

river  })egins  to  rise  on 
/      .,,_  account  of  the  heavy 

f^%  rains  at  the   sources 

of  the  river,  and  the 
flood  waters  continue 
until  October.  In 
ancient  times  if  the 
river  rose  only  about 
twenty-five  feet,  it 
filled  but  a  few  of 
the  irrigation  ditches 
that  carried  the  water 
to  the  thirsty  fields, 
and  there  were  short 
crops  in  Egj^pt.  If 
it  rose  more  than 
thirty  feet,  it  ignored 
the  irrigation  ditches 
altogether,  and 
flooded  the  fields  as 
it  pleased,  and  did  a 
great  deal  of  damage.  Prosperity  in  Egypt  has  always 
depended  on  a  normal  rise  of  the  river,  for  then  the 
fields  have  been  well  covered  with  water  and  a  thin 
deposit  of  fertile  mud  has  been  left,  insuring  a  good 
crop. 

44.  Egypt  at  the  Dawn  of  History.  —  This  fertile  Nile 
valley  was  the  scene  of  the  earliest  real  civilization  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  This  civilization  was  developed  slowly. 
Long  before  the  dawn  of  history  in  Egypt,  numerous  local 
governments  had  arisen  along  the  river  to  look  after  the 


Ancient  Egypt. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT  35 

irrigation  of  the  fields  and  other  affairs  of  general  interest. 
In  the  Delta  the  draining  of  the  swamps  was  one  of  the 
first  and  most  important  problems.  It  was  in  the  Delta 
that  in  4241  B.C.  the  year  was  divided  into  365  days, 
twelve  months  of  30  days  each,  with  5  extra  feast  days. 
A  high  authority  calls  4241  b.c.  the  earliest  fixed  date 
in  history.  About  this  time  the  Delta,  or  lower  Egypt, 
was  united  under  a  single  king,  and,  soon  after,  the  valley 
of  the  Nile  from  the  Delta  nearly  to  the  first  cataract  was 
united  under  another  king.  Lower  Egypt,  or  the  Delta, 
was  called  the  kingdom  of  the  Red  Crown.  Upper  Egypt 
was  known  as  the  kingdom  of  the  White  Crown. 

About  3400  B.C.  the  young  and  enterprising  king  of  up-  Union  of 
per  Egypt,  Me'nes,  marched  against  the  lower  Kingdom.  ^^  ^^^ 
Menes  was  victorious  and  united  upper  and  lower  Egypt 
under  his  vigorous  sway.  He  placed  his  capital  at  Mem- 
phis, on  the  border  line  between  upper  and  lower  Egypt, 
and  he  established  the  first  dynasty.^  All  earlier  events 
are  spoken  of  as  predynastic,  and  all  later  rulers  belong  to 
dynasties  which  are  numbered  from  one  to  twenty-six. 

45.  The  Pyramid  Builders.  —  The  early  Pharaohs,  as  Interest  of 
the  kings  were  called,   were   prosperous   and  built   fine        /  . 

"  7  i-        r-  ^  raohs  in 

temples,  but  they  cared  more  for  massive  tombs  after  tombs, 
death  than  for  palaces  while  living.  It  is  from  the  tombs 
of  the  early  Pharaohs  and  the  still  earlier  (predynastic) 
nobles  that  we  have  learned  most  of  what  we  know 
about  early  Egypt.  About  five  centuries  after  Menes 
the  Pharaohs  began  to  build  their  tombs  in  the  form  of 
great  pyramids. 

These    pyramids    are    located    near    Memphis.     The 

^  Menes  and  his  successors  opened  copper  mines  and  stone  quarries  at 
Mount  Sinai,  constructed  great  buildings,  undertook  great  engineering 
works,  brought  northeastern  Africa  and  southern  Palestine  under  their 
sway  and  carried  on  extensive  commerce  up  the  Nile,  over  the  Red  Sea 
and  on  the  Mediterranean. 


36 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


Pyramid- 
tombs    near 
Memphis. 
Magnitude 
and  ac- 
curacy of 
the  work. 


largest,  that  of  Che-ops',  was  486  feet  high,  the  base 
being  square  and  covering  thirteen  acres.  It  is  said  to 
have  taken  an  army  of  120,000  workmen  twenty  years  to 
complete  the  huge  structure,  in  the  base  of  which  was  to 
be  the  tomb  of  the  ruling  Pharaoh.  The  huge  blocks  of 
stone,  many  of  which  weighed  several  tons,  were  drawn 
up  a  mountain  of  earth  and  fitted  accurately  to  their  po- 


Expulsion 
of  the 

Hyksos  and 
conquests 
to  the 
west,  south 
and  east. 


The  Great  PjTamids. 

sitions.     Near  these  pyramids  is  the  well-known  sphinx, 
the  face  being  that  of  the  Pharaoh  who  constructed  it. 

46.  The  Establishment  of  an  Empire.  —  For  a  thousand 
years  after  the  days  of  the  great  pyramid  builders,  Egypt 
was  dominated  by  her  nobles,  her  king  being  probably 
the  most  important  noble. ^  After  this  period  came  in- 
vaders from  the  east,  who  brought  in  horses  and  over- 
ran the  countr3\  For  perhaps  two  centuries  these  Hyksos 
kings  ruled  lower  Egypt  and  tried  to  control  upper  Egypt 
as  well.     The  Hyksos  were  driven  out  by  the  princes  of 

^  This  was  practically  a  feudal  period  and  is  called  the  Middle  King- 
dom. The  last  rulers  of  this  "feudal  period"  were  enterprising  and  able 
Pharaohs  (those  of  the  twelfth  dynasty),  under  whom  the  classical 
language  was  perfected,  literature  flourished  and  commerce  was  devel- 
oped. A  canal  was  cut  from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Nile.  By  a  wall  twenty- 
seven  miles  long  the  great  basin  west  of  the  Nile,  known  as  the  Fayum, 
was  reclaimed  for  agriculture. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT 


37 


Thebes  who  organized  great  armies,  with  horses  and 
chariots.  For  the  first  time  the  Egyptian  people  were 
really  united,  since  the  Theban  princes  had  appealed  to  a 
common  patriotism.  The  new  Pharaohs  were  not  con- 
tent to  be  simply  kings  of  Egypt.  They  looked  for  new 
lands  to  conquer.  Under  Thotmes  (Tot'mes)  III  (1450 
B.C.)  the  Egyptian  empire  extended  from  Libya  on  the 
west  and  Nubia  on  the  south  to  the  Euphrates  river.^ 

47.  The  Decline  of  the  Empire.  —  The  capital  of  this 
empire  was  ''  hundred-gated  Thebes,"  which  had  long 
been  noted  for  its  culture.  Thotmes  III  and  his  contem- 
poraries beautified 
and  improved  the 
city.  Two  of  the 
most  famous  of 
the.  buildings  were 
the  Hall  of  Kar'nak 
and  the  temple  of 
Lux'or.  The  most 
renowned  of  the 
Pharaohs  was 
Ram'e-ses  II,  a 
cruel  old  tyrant 
who  enslaved  for- 
eigners that  lived 
in  Egypt,  compell- 
ing them  to  work 
on  his  great  build- 
ings or  huge  ca- 
nals. 


"Hundred- 
gated 
Thebes." 
Hall  of 
Karnak  and 
Temple  of 
Luxor. 


Karnak,  Great  Columns. 


As  the  empire  did  not  last  long  after  Rameses  II, 
we  may  say  that  it  covered  the  five  centuries  from  1600 
B.C.  to  1100  B.C.     In  672  the  Assyrians  gained  control 


The   empire 
after 
Rameses  II. 


^  See  map,  p.  50. 


38 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


From  the 
Persian  to 
the  British 
Empire. 


Popular 
terms  to  be 
remem- 
bered. 


of  lower  Egypt  for  a  few  years,  but  they  were  soon  driven 
out  and  a  native  Pharaoh  once  more  ruled  Eg^-pt.  After 
525  came  the  Persians,  and  from  that  time  to  our  own  day 
Egypt  has  not  been  free  from  foreign  rule. 

48.  Egypt  under  World  Empires.  —  Persian  rule  lasted 
for  two  centuries,  until  Alexander  the  Great  marched 
into  the  Delta  and  founded  Alexandria,  which  for  cen- 
turies was  the  centre  of  commerce  and  learning  in  the 
ancient  world.  After  three  centuries  of  Greek  rule  came 
the  Roman  legions,  the  Romans  borrowing  the  calendar 
which  we  use  now,  and  copying  some  of  the  least  desirable 
religious  rites  of  the  Eg^^^tians.  In  the  Christian  era, 
the  Arabs  (Mo-ham'me-dans)  and  the  Turks  have  ruled 
Egypt  since  Roman  times,  and  to-day  Egypt  is,  practically, 
a  part  of  the  greatest  empire  of  the  late  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, the  British  empire. 

49.  Distinctive  Characteristics  of  Egyptian  Civilization. 
—  It  is  not  the  part  played  by  Egypt  as  a  dependent 
state  in  later  empires,  but  the  fact  that  her  civilization 
was  the  first  in  the  world's  history,  that  makes  Egjq^t  so 
important.  We  shall  study  that  civilization  later,  but 
should  note  some  distinguishing  features  now.  We 
think  of  Egypt  as  the  land  of  the  Nile,  as  the  kingdom  of 
the  Pharaohs,  as  the  country  of  massive  architecture, 
such  as  the  pyramids,  the  labyrinth,  the  Sphinx,  and  the 
great  halls  at  Karnak  and  Luxor.  We  think  of  it  as  the 
land  where  the  living  worshipped  sacred  animals,^  such  as 
the  bull,  the  ibis  and  the  cat,  and  where  the  bodies  of  the 
dead  were  embalmed  (as  mummies),  because  the  Egyptians 
believed,  more  than  any  other  ancient  people,  in  a  life  after 
death.  Finally  we  think  of  Egypt  as  the  land  of  picture 
writing,  hi-er-o-glj^ph'ics,  for  the  ancient  EgjqDtians  cov- 
ered their  tombs,  walls  and  rocks  with  their  pictured  stories. 

^  The  worship  of  sacred  animals  is  characteristic  of  later  Eg^'ptian 
religion,  not  of  the  earlier  period. 


THE   TIGRIS-EUPHRATES  VALLEY 


39 


50.  The  Arts  in  Egypt.  —  Besides  these  characteristics,   Art  and 


which  appeal  to  our  imaginations  and  are  semi-popular, 
we  find  that  the  Egyptians  excelled  in  fine  art  work,  as 
in  the  making  of  pottery,  glass-ware,  jewelry  and  in 
carving.  They  were  mathematicians  who  used  geometry 
to  lay  out  their  fields  again  after  the  inundations  of  the 
Nile.  They  studied  the  stars.  To  be  sure  they  did  not 
know  as  much  about  some  of  these  things  as  they  tried 
to  make  other  people  think,  and  yet  they  knew  more 
about  most  of  them  than  any  one  else  did  at  that  time. 


science  in 
Egypt. 


The   Tigris-Euphrates  Valley — Early  Period 

51.  The  Geography  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  Valley.  — 
Like  the  Nile  valley  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  is  one  of 
the  most  fertile  spots  on  the  globe,  as  well  as  the  seat  of 
one  of  the  world's  first  historic  civihzations.  The  lower 
part,  called  Babylonia,^  is  made  up  chiefly  of  mud  de- 
posited by  the  rivers.  When  it  was  drained  and  properly 
irrigated,  its  fertility  was  so  great  that  travellers  re- 
ported a  yield  of  200  or  even  300  fold  from  grain  stalks 
six  feet  high,  with  heads  three  inches  broad.  Although 
it  is  impossible  to  believe  these  stories,  yet  they  show 
that  the  soil  of  Babylonia  must  have  been  remarkably 
fertile. 

The  upper  valley  is  called  Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a,  between  the 
rivers,  and  is  known  as  Assyria  on  the  hills  northeast  of 
the  Tigris  river.  The  soil  is  poorer  than  it  is  in  the 
alluvial  deposits  of  Babylonia,  and  the  rainfall  is  greater, 
especially  in  Assyria.  There  is  no  stone  or  metal  any- 
where in  Babylonia,  but  both  are  abundant  in  the  upper 
valley.  A  glance  at  the  map  shows  that  the  Euphrates 
valley  was  the  natural  highway  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to 


Babylonia 
and  its 
excep- 
tionally 
fertile  soil. 


The  upper 
valley, 
with  the 
Euphrates 
highway. 


1  Babylonia  is  divided  into  lower  Babylonia,  a  mud  delta,  and  upper 
Babylonia,  a  low  fertile  plain.     It  was  later  called  Chaldea. 


40 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


The  culture, 
art  and 
cuneiform 
writing  of 
the  Sume- 
rians. 


the  Mediterranean  Sea,^  that  is  between  the  East  and  the 
West  of  that  day. 

52.  The  Sumerians.  —  The  earliest  civiHzation  of  the 
Tigris-Euphrates  basin,  so  far  as  we  have  knowledge,  was 
not  developed  in  its  own  valley,  as  was  that  of  Egypt, 


Desert 


The  Tigris-Euphrates  Basin. 

but  was  brought  in  from  outside.     These  people  lived  in 
a  part  of  the  valley  called  Su'mer  and  are  known  as  Su- 


^  UnUke  Egypt,  this  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  is  not  isolated.  It  is 
open  at  the  south  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  Numerous  passes  lead  down  from 
the  plateaus  on  the  north  and  east  (the  plateau  of  Iran  —  the  home  of 
the  Medes  and  Persians),  and  Arabia  lies  on  its  western  border.  It  is 
not  only  open  on  all  sides  to  commerce,  but  the  richness  of  its  soil  and 
the  wealth  of  its  people  attracted  the  nomadic  tribes  of  the  neighboring 
foothills.  Sometimes  these  invaders  brought  in  a  higher  civilization 
than  they  found  in  the  valley,  but,  almost  without  exception,  they  were 
crude  and  barbarous  people,  who  sought  plunder.  Repeatedly  the  prog- 
ress of  civilization  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  was  set  back  by  these 
barbarians,  although  usually  the  new  comers  adopted  the  ways  of  the 
valley-dwellers. 


THE   TIGRIS-EUPHRATES  VALLEY  41 

me'ri-ans,  but  we  really  do  not  know  who  they  were. 
We  do  know,  however,  that  the  Sumerians  had  a  written 
language,  some  art  and  a  high  degree  of  culture.  Their 
written  characters  were  a  combination  of  wedge-shaped 
impressions,  called  the  cu'ne-i-form  script.  It  was 
adopted  by  all  later  peoples  of  western  Asia  and  was 
used  in  Egypt  in  the  time  of  the  empire  (§  46). 

53.  The   Semites  in   Western  Asia.  —  The  Sumerians   How  they 
were    overwhelmed    by    invaders    from    Arabia.     These   ^hrsume- 
invaders  are  called  Sem'ites,  the  name  given  to  a  great  rian  culture, 
race  that  speaks  a  language  similar  to  that  of  the  Hebrews. 

The  ancient  history  of  western  Asia  is  largely  a  history  of 
Semitic  peoples  in  Babylonia,  in  Assyria,  in  Syria,  in 
Phoenicia  and  in  Palestine.  The  Semites  had  little 
originality,  that  is  they  were  not  good  at  inventing  things 
or  developing  things  for  themselves,  but  they  made 
excellent  use  of  the  art,  the  writing  and  the  culture  of  the 
Sumerians.  They  were  interested  in  trade  and  they 
developed  cities,  so  that  business  could  be  carried  on 
better. 

54.  The     City-States.  —  The    earliest    inhabitants    of  The  rise 
the  valley  lived  in  villages  of  rude  reed    huts.     These  ^cttr  of^the 
gave  place  in  time  to  houses  of  sun-baked  bricks  with  a  city-states, 
dome-like  roof,  each  village  being  surrounded  by  a  wall 

of  brick  to  keep  off  enemies.  Each  city  had  a  great  num- 
ber of  gods,  including  at  least  one  patron  deity.  Each 
had  its  own  king  or  its  own  ruler,  who  was  independent 
at  first,  and  hved  in  a  huge  house  of  brick,  called  a  palace. 
These  little  self-governing  cities  are  called  city-states, 
and  the  name  should  be  remembered,  for  the  city-state 
played  a  very  important  part  in  ancient  history,  until  the 
establishment  of  the  Roman  Empire  (§  354). 

55.  Sargon  of  Agade.  —  Soriie  of  these  cities  were  larger 
and  wealthier  than  others  and  were  ruled  by  abler  and 
more  ambitious  men.     The  stronger  cities  gained  control 


42 


THE  NEAR  EAST 


Sargon's 
empire 
covering 
the  entire 
Tigris- 
Euphrates 
valley 
(about  2650 

B.C.). 


Growth  of 
Babylon 
and  its 
commerce. 


Hammurabi 
as  a  con- 
queror, 
builder  and 
statesman. 


of  their  neighbors,  making  the  kings  of  these  neighboring 
cities  into  dependents  whom  we  may  call  governors. 
One  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  cities  was  A'ga-de,  the 
throne  of  which  was  held  by  a  man  who  had  been  a 
gardener  and  afterward  a  cup-bearer  in  the  king's  palace. 
Sar'gon  must  have  been  a  man  of  great  energy  and  ability. 
He  not  only  conquered  his  immediate  neighbors  but  ex- 
tended his  rule  south  to  the  Persian  Gulf  and  north 
along  the  Euphrates.  He  carried  Babylonian  culture 
and  civilization  to  the  foothills  of  Ar-me'ni-a  and  to  dis- 
tant Syria,  and  brought  back  the  stones,  metals  and  other 
products  of  these  provinces.  Sargon's  empire  is  the  first 
in  history,  being  1200  years  earlier  than  that  of  Thotmes 
III  in  Egypt. 

56.  Hammurabi's  Empire.  —  In  fact,  more  than  four 
centuries   before   Thotmes   III,  another   larger,  stronger 

and  more  lasting  empire 
than  that  of  Sargon  was 
■established    by    a    great 
conqueror  and  statesman, 
Ham-mu-ra'bi.    This  em- 
pire lasted  several  centu- 
ries and  is  called  the  old 
Babylonian      kingdom. 
The  capital  of  Babylonia 
was  now   the   important 
walled    city   of    Babylon, 
a    commercial    metropo- 
lis which  desired  foreign 
trade  and  was  anxious  to 
extend    its   rule    for   the 
benefit  of  its  trade. 
Hammurabi  sent  out  his  own  officials  to  rule  over  the 
subject    cities.     He    established    a    post-sj^stem,    opened 
up   better  means  of   communication,   constructed  great 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood 
Hammurabi  receiving  Code. 


THE   TIGRIS-EUPHRATES  VALLEY 


43 


canals,  and  was  repaid  by  such  an  increase  in  agriculture 
and  such  expansion  of  manufacturing  and  commerce 
as  had  never  taken  place  before. 

57.  Hammurabi's  Code  of  Laws.  —  Hammurabi  is 
best  known  for  his  code  of  laws,  which  shows  that  busi- 
ness was  conducted  on  wise  and  just  principles,  and  that 
buying  and  selling,  as  well  as  social  relations,  were  regu- 
lated by  law.  Most  of  the  laws  in  the  code  are  much  older 
than  Hammurabi's  time,  and  many  of  them  are  to  be 
found  in  a  milder  form  in  the  much  later  Mosaic  code  of 
the  Hebrews. 

We  can  judge  Hammurabi's  code  of  laws  for  ourselves 
from  the  following  extracts  : 

If  a  man  during  a  law  case  shaU  utter  threats  against  the 
witnesses,  and  has  not  justified  the  word  he  uttered,  if  that  suit 
is  one  on  which  a  hfe  depends,  that  man  shall  die. 

If  a  man  has  stolen  an  ox,  sheep  or  ass,  or  pig,  or  goat,  either 
from  a  god  [temple]  or  a  palace,  he  shall  pay  thirty-fold.  If  he 
is  a  common  man,  he  shall  pay  ten-fold.  If  the  thief  has  nothing 
to  pay  with,  he  shall  be  put  to  death. 

If  a  man  has  effected  a  robbery,  and  is  taken,  that  man  shall 
be  put  to  death. 

If  a  man  has  taken  a  field  of  cultivation,  and  has  not  caused 
corn  to  grow  on  the  field,  and  has  not  performed  the  work  on  the 
field,  he  shall  be  called  to  account  and  he  shall  give  corn  [grain] 
like  his  neighbor  to  the  owner  of  the  field. 

If  a  man  destroy  the  eye  of  a  man,  his  eye  they  shall  put  out. 

If  a  man  knock  out  the  teeth  of  his  equal,  his  teeth  shall  be 
knocked  out. 

If  a  doctor  has  saved  the  eye  of  a  man,  ten  shekels  of  silver 
he  shall  take.  If  it  was  a  freedman,  five  shekels  of  silver  he  takes. 
If  it  was  a  slave,  he  shall  take  two  shekels. 

If  a  doctor  has  put  out  the  eye,  his  hands  shall  be  cut  off. 

If  he  build  a  house  for  a  man  and  did  not  set  his  work,  and 
the  walls  topple  over,  that  builder  from  his  own  money  shall 
make  that  wall  strong. 

If  a  man  hire  a  harvester,  he  shall  give  him  eight  gur  [64 
bushels]  of  corn  for  the  year. 

If  a  man  hire  a  ship  of  60  gur  [480  bushels],  for  each  day  he 
shall  pay  one-sixth  of  a  shekel. 


The  oldest 
complete 
code  of 
laws  in 
existence. 


Some  of 
the  laws 
in  Ham- 
murabi's 
code. 


44 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


Assyria  and  Chaldea 

Character  58.  The    Assyrians.  —  The    As-syr'i-ans    lived    on    the 

of  the  As-      slope  of  the  mountain  east  and  north  of  the  Tigris  River. 

synans.  ^  .  "  . 

Appearance    They  were  a  healthy,  vigorous  people,  and  their  monu- 
and  cruelty.  ments  show  them  with 

the  long  beards  and 
facial  characteristics  of 
the  tj'pical  Hebrew  pa- 
triarch. The  Assyrians 
were  not  an  industrial 
or  agricultural  people 
like  the  Babylonians, 
but  they  were  inter- 
ested in  trade  and  were 
especially  fond  of  war,^ 
which  they  waged 
against  their  enemies 
with  fierceness  and  cru- 
elty.2 

59.   The      Assyrian 

Six-sided  Cylinder.  Empire.  —  About      750 

1  The  greatest  of  the  early  Assyrian  conquerors  was  Tig'lath-Pi-le'ser 
I,  who  conquered,  according  to  his  inscription,  "  forty-two  countries  and 
their  princes,  from  the  left  bank  of  the  lower  Zab  and  the  border  of 
forest-clad  mountains  as  far  as  the  right  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  the 
land  of  the  Khatti  [Hittitcs]  and  the  Upper  Sea  of  the  setting  sun 
[Mediterranean]."  "The  feet  of  the  enemy  I  kept  from  my  country." 
"One  word  united  I  caused  them  to  speak." 

2  One  of  the  inscriptions  gives  an  instance  of  the  punishment  meted 
out  to  rebels.  "With  battle  and  slaughter  I  assaulted  and  took  the  city. 
Three  thousand  captives  I  slew  in  battle.  Their  booty  and  possessions, 
cattle,  sheep,  I  carried  away;  many  captives  I  burned  with  fire.  Many 
of  their  soldiers  I  took  alive ;  of  some  I  cut  off  hands  and  limbs ;  of  others 
the  noses,  ears  and  arms ;  of  many  soldiers  I  put  out  the  eyes.  I  reared 
a  column  of  the  living  and  a  column  of  heads.  I  hung  up  on  high  their 
heads  on  trees  in  the  vicinity  of  their  city.  Their  boys  and  girl.s  I  burned 
up  in  the  flames.  I  devastated  the  city,  dug  it  up,  in  tire  burned  it  ; 
I  annihilated  it." 


ASSYRIA  AND   CHALDEA 


45 


B.C.  Assyria  became  the  dominant  power  in  western  Asia. 
From  her  province  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  valley  she  reached  out  to  Babylonia  on  the 
south,  to  Syria  on  the  west,  and  to  Palestine  and  Egypt 
on  the  southwest. 

The  Assyrians  looked  upon  Babylon  with  reverence, 
because  they  borrowed  their  culture  from  the  Babylo- 
nians. Theirwriting  was  the  cuneiform  script.  Although 
they  lived  in  a  country  abounding  with  stone,  they  built 
their  houses,  palaces,  temples  and  walls  of  brick,  as  the 
Babylonians  did.  They  frequently  conquered  Babylon, 
but  they  treated  the  city  better  than  other  subject  cities, 
just  as  Alexander  (§  202)  and  Rome  (§  328)  looked  up 
to  Greece  and  gave  her  special  favors,  after  they  had  con- 
quered her. 

Even  with  Babylon,  however,  the  Assyrians  followed 
their  policy  of  deportation,  sending  more  than  one  hundred 
thousand  people  from  Babylonia  into  Syria.  When  Sa- 
maria was  conquered,  the  people  of  Israel  were  taken  to 
Assyria.  These  Is'ra-el-ites  are  sometimes  called  the  '^  ten 
lost  tribes."  In  this  way  the  Assyrians  tried  to  divide  the 
opposition  to  Assyrian  rule,  since  every  subject  state  had 
some  Assyrian  colonists  and  many  non-Assyrian  immi- 
grants, who  would  naturally  fail  to  work  with  the  natives 
for  the  independence  of  the  state  where  they  lived.  All 
provinces  were  ruled  by  governors  sent  out  from  Assyria. 

60.  Assyrian  Splendor  and  Decline.  —  The  greatest  of 
the  cities  was  Nin'e-veh  on  the  Tigris  River.  The  Assyr- 
ian entered  the  city  through  gates.  On  the  top  of  the 
huge  walls  seven  chariots  could  be  driven  abreast.  Before 
all  public  buildings  the  visitor  saw  huge  stone  statues, 
reliefs  of  the  royal  Assyrian  emblem,  the  colossal  bull 
with  human  head.  Here  one  king  (As-shur-ban'i-pal) 
gathered  a  great  library  (§  102).  To  withstand  a  siege 
Nineveh  brought  to  the  city  at  considerable  expense  the 


Extent  of 
the  empire. 


Relations 
with  Baby- 
lonia. 


Deportation 
of  subjects 
by  tens  of 
thousands. 


Nineveh. 
Its  walls, 
statues  and 
water- 
supply. 


46 


THE   NEAR  EAST 


waters  of  oighteen  mountain  streams,  with  reservoirs  for 
keeping  a  supply  in  the  city. 

This  barbaric  splendor  and  these  precautions  for  de- 
fence against  enemies  did  not  help  Nineveh,  for  her  rulers 
oppressed  all  of  their  subjects,  and,  from  the  four  quarters 


Nebuchad- 
nezzar and 
his  conquest 
of  the  Jews. 


Winged  Bull. 

of  the  empire,  revolt  followed  revolt.  The  Medes  from 
the  Persian  plateau  joined  with  the  prince  of  Babylonia, 
and,  after  a  long  siege,  Nineveh  fell,  the  last  Assyrian 
king  perishing  in  the  flames  (606  B.C.)- 

61.  The  New  Babylonian  Kingdom. —  Most  of  the 
Assyrian  possessions  fell  to  Ba])ylonia,  whose  new  king, 
Neb-u-chad-nez'zar,  showed  wonderful  ability  in  recon- 
quering the  provinces  that  had  revolted.     He  did  not  try  to 


ASSYRIA  AND   CHALDEA 


47 


gain  Egypt,  but  he  conquered  Jerusalem  (586  B.C.),  sending 
tens  of  thousands  of  Jews  to  Babylon.  This  experience  of 
Jewish  exiles  is  known  in  Hebrew  history  as  the  "  Babylon- 
ian captivity."  Nebuchadnezzar  spent  thirteen  years  with- 
out success  trying  to  conquer  the  little  island  of  Tyre  in 
Phoenicia.     This  later  Babylonian  kingdom  is  known  as  the 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood 
Ruins  of  Babylon. 


new  Babylonian  kingdom.    It  is  sometimes  called  the  Chal- 
dean kingdom,  because  Nebuchadnezzar  was  a  Chal-de'an} 

62.  What   Nebuchadnezzar  did  for  Babylon.  —  Nebu-  Work  of 
chadnezzar  was  a  man  of  peace  rather  than  a  warrior.   Nebuchad- 

^  ^  nezzar  as 

He  aided  industry  and  commerce,  reconstructing  many  of  statesman 
the  old  irrigation  canals,  rebuilt  Babylon,  raised  a  great  ^^^  builder, 
dike  or  wall  from  the  Tigris  to  the  Euphrates  by  which 

^  The  Chaldeans  had  been  the  most  aggressive  race  of  Babylonia  for 
several  centuries  before  this  time. 


48 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


Fall  of 
Babylon, 
538  B.C. 


Spread  of 
civilization 
through 
commerce 
to  the 
Mediter- 
ranean. 


Some  of 
the  ways 
in  which  we 
are  indebted 
to  the 
Baby- 
lonians. 


he  could  flood  the  country  against  enemies,  and  he  ])uilt 
walls  vaster  than  those  of  Nineveh.  His  best  known 
work  was  the  construction  of  the  famous  hanging  gardens, 
which  he  fashioned  for  his  Median  queen,  who  longed  for 
her  mountains.^  These  gardens  were  considered  one  of 
the  wonders  of  the  ancient  world.  They  were  built  along 
the  Euphrates  River  and  consisted  of  four  terraces  with 
arcades  for  merchants  along  the  bank  of  the  river.  On 
the  highest  terrace,  about  one  hundred  feet  above  the 
Euphrates,  were  all  kinds  of  wonderful  plants,  irrigated 
by  water  pumped  up  from  the  river.  Great  sheets  of  lead 
kept  the  water  from  seeping  through  the  brick  terraces 
and  undermining  the  walls. 

After  Nebuchadnezzar's  death  the  Babylonian  kingdom 
lasted  but  a  short  time.  In  a  few  years  came  the  cry, 
'^  The  Medes  and  the  Persians  are  at  your  gates,"  and 
the  city  fell,  538  b.c,  for  the  Persians  became  the  masters 
of  all  western  Asia  (§  162). 

63.  Importance  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  Civilization. 
—  Babylonia  shares  with  Egypt  the  honor  of  having  one 
of  the  first  historic  civilizations.  Its  influence  was  per- 
haps even  greater  than  that  of  Egypt,  for  the  Euphrates 
was  the  highway  from  the  East  to  the  West.  It  was  a 
centre  of  commerce  extending  in  all  directions,  but  espe- 
cially to  the  southeast  by  way  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
northwest  to  the  Mediterranean.  Whatever  Babylonia 
had  was  carried  by  her  merchants  or  her  ''  governors- 
general  "  to  Mesopotamia,  to  Assyria,  to  Syria,  to  Asia 
Minor  and  even  to  the  West. 

Babylonia's  cuneiform  writing  was  at  one  time  the  official 
written  language,  not  onh'  of  western  Asia,  but  of  Egj'pt 
as  well.  This  was  before  the  time  of  Rameses  II  (§  47). 
Her  religion  influenced  that  of  Assyria,  Phoenicia,  far-away 
Carthage  and  even  Greece.     Her  methods  of  foretelling 

1  Media  was  east  of  the  Tigris  River  and  Assyria. 


EGYPTIAN 
EMPIRE 

Time  of  Thotiues 
15     145<»  B.  C. 

Miles 

0      imi    200    :iUO 


ly^^  '  /  Babylon 

ARABIAN 
DESERT      30- 


HITTITE 
E3IPIKK 

jiphy      1350T5.  C. 

'■"^  Miles 

0       li>J    'Joo    ^J';o25- 

Empire       I  ~-  I 

3i))i    Depriulencics  i      2. 


WJLLiAMS  Ef.5.   CO..  NEW    YOniC 


WILLIAMS  EN3.    CO.,N£A    rO»< 


EAKLY  BABYLONIAN30 
KMPIKKS 

nEAUTA  BAI5VI.ONIAN 
UKFENDENCIES 

0     100    1>W    300    400    500 


WILLIAMS  CNu  CO.,  New  rOHC 


ASSYRIA  AND   CHALDEA  49 

events  by  divination  were  borrowed  by  Greece  and  Rome, 
and  the  superstition  of  her  astrology  descended  to  still 
later  times.  We  still  speak  of  soothsayers  as  "  Chal- 
deans." Her  law  codes  reappear  in  the  laws  of  the 
Hebrews  and  of  many  other  western  peoples.  She  divided 
her  day  into  twenty-four  hours  with  two  sets  of  twelve 
hours  each.  Her  week  had  seven  days,  named  as  ours  are, 
after  the  gods  of  the  sun,  moon  and  planets.  Her  science, 
especially  that  of  the  heavens,  was  better  developed  than 
that  of  the  Egyptians.  Her  legends  have  been  copied 
in  the  legends  of  other  people.  We  should  notice  for 
example  the  deluge  story  (§  91),  and  the  labors  of  Gil- 
gamesh  (Hercules)  (§  100)  in  the  next  chapter.  Baby- 
lonian systems  of  weight  and  measure  were  used  every- 
where in  the  West.  The  Babylonians  were  the  first 
people  to  teach  the  world  construction  by  means  of  the 
arch  and  the  use  of  drains.  Without  question  the  world's 
debt  to  Babylonia  is  great  and  Babylonia's  influence  on 
the  world,  unfortunately,  has  been  even  greater. 

The  East  Mediterranean  Coast 

64.   Geography.  —  Where  the  great   bend   of  the   Eu-  The  three 
phrates  occurs,  the  East,  that  is,  the  Tigris-Euphrates   ^e^pfes^and 
valley,  joins  the  Middle  West,  that  is,  the  east  Mediter-  highways  of 
ranean   coast.     This   east   Mediterranean   coast   consists   Mechter- 
of  three  geographical  areas  that  were  the  homes  of  three  ranean 
important  peoples  in  antiquity.     This  coast  also  furnished   ^°^^^- 
three  highways  between  the  East  and  the  West  and  was 
the  disputed  ground  between  the  empires  of  the  Egyptians 
and  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley.     The  northern  part 
of  this  east  Mediterranean  coast  we  call  Syria,  and  in 
ancient  times  it  was  occupied  by  the  Hit'lites,  a  people 
who  belonged  really  in  the  eastern  half  of  Asia  Minor. 
Along  the  coast  south  of  Syria  there  were  several  enter- 


50 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


Location, 
culture  and 
work  of  the 
Hittites. 


prising  commercial  cities,  inhiil)itc(l  by  the  PhcE-ni'cians. 
Inland  from  Phccnicia  and  south  of  Syria  is  that  land 
tlirouj^h  which  the  river  Jordan  flows,  hrst  into  the  Sea 
of  (lalilee  and  later  into  that  great  salt  sink,  1300  feet 
below  sea  level,  the  Dead  Sea,  This  country  we  call 
Pal'es-tine,  and  it  was  inhabited  by  the  Hebrews. 

65.   The  Hittites.  —  The  name  Hittile  is  usually  applied 
to  all  those  tribes  that  occupied  the  territory  from  the 

Black  Sea  south  to  the 


The  Hittite 
empire 
from  the 
Black  Sea  to 
Palestine. 


borders  of  Palestine. 
Little  is  known  about 
them,  although  we 
have  uncovered  a 
great  many  ruins  of 
their  buildings  and 
cities  in  Asia  Minor. 
Some  of  them  were 
allied  in  race  to  the 
Assyrians  and  Phoe- 
nicians and,  like  the 
Assyrians  and  Phoeni- 
cians, they  borrowed 
most  of  their  deities, 
their  culture  and  their 
later  writings  from  the 
Babylonians.  They 
added  nothing  to  the 
civilization  of  the 
human  race   and   yet 

they  helped  to  pass  on  the  Babylonian  culture  to  peoples 

farther  west. 

In  the  days  after  Thotmes  III,   when  the  Egyptians 

began  to  lose  their  hold  on  Syria,  a  great  Hittite  king  ^ 

united  under  his  rule  the  eastern  half  of  Asia  Minor, 

*  Subbiluliuma. 


East  Mediterranean  Coast. 


THE   EAST   MEDITERRANEAN   COAST 


51 


Syria  and  most  of  Palestine.^  For  two  centuries  this 
Hittite  empire  lasted,  until  the  Assyrians  began  to  grow 
powerful,  but  five  centuries  passed  before  the  greatest 
Assyrian  kings  finally  overthrew  the  Hittite  power  (§  59). 

66.  Phoenicia  and  her  People.  —  The  Phoenicians  oc- 
cupied a  little  strip  of  coast  but  a  few  miles  in  width. 
The  mountains  are  so  close  to  the  sea  that  the  hillsides 
are  steep  and  there  are  few  farms,  but  numerous  harbors. 
The  Phoenicians  naturally  turned  to  the  sea  for  a  living. 
They  gathered  about  the  harbors  in  little  clusters  that 
were  city-states,  like  the  early  states  of  the  Euphrates 
valley  (§  54). 

For  trade  their  location  was  ideal.  They  had  fine 
harbors.  They  were  located  at  the  eastern  end  of  the 
trade  routes  along  the  Euphrates  which  connected  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  with  Babylonia  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 
They  were  bold  and  skilful  sailors,  who  did  most^of  the 
carrying  of  goods  from  Egypt  to  Mediterranean  ports 
after  the  decline  of  the  Cretans  (§  124)  and  before  the  rise 
of  the  Greeks  (§  142). 

67.  Tyre  and  Carthage.  —  In  order  that  they  might 
have  depots  for  convenience  in  trading  at  distant  points, 
the  Phoenicians  made  trading-settlements  or  colonies 
at  different  places  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 
One  of  these  was  in  Greece,  at  or  near  Thebes,  others 
were  in  Sicily,  still  others  on  the  northern  shores  of  Africa. 
One  of  these,  Car'thage  (§  308),  located  at  a  very  fine 
harbor  opposite  Sicily,  was  destined  to  be  even  more  fa- 
mous than  its  famous  founder,  the  Phoenician  city  of 
Tyre. 

Tyre  was  the  great  commercial  city  of  the  ancient 
world  before  the  rise  of  Alexandria  (§  216).     Tyre  (Tire) 

^  Beyond  the  Euphrates  east  to  the  mountains  of  Assyria  all  the  kings 
acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the  Hittites,  although  their  possessions 
did  not  form  part  of  his  empire.     (See  map,  p.  45.) 


How  the 
geography 
and  location 
of  the  Phoe- 
nicians 
made  them 
traders. 


Trade 
routes. 
Extent  of 
Phoenician 
trade. 


Some  Phoe- 
nician 
colonies. 


Tyre,  her 
people  and 
her  busi- 


ness. 


52 


THE    NEAR    EAST 


Civilization 
carried  with 
the  Phoeni- 
cian trade. 


The  alpha- 
bet. 


From 
Abraham 
to  Moses. 


was  built  on  an  island  so  that  it  could  not  easily  be  cap- 
tured, as  Nebuchadnezzar  discovered.  There  was  found 
near  the  city  a  shell  fish  that  gav(*  a  beautiful  j:)urple  dye, 
which  was  used  for  fine  fabrics  and  was  so  expensive  that 
it  was  bought  chiefly  by  kings.  This  is  known  as  the 
Tyrian  or  royal  purple.  Tyre  had  great  fleets,  very 
extensive  trade  and  large  factories  in  which  her  people 
manufactured  the  raw  materials  that  they  gathered  on 
their  trading  voyages. 

68.  The  Phoenicians  as  Carriers  of  Civilization.  — 
The  Phoenicians  were  not  an  inventive  people.     From  the 

Babylonians  they  borrowed 
their  deities  and  most  of  their 
civilization.  But  they  did 
more  than  that ;  for  they 
carried  this  civilization  with 
them  w^hen  they  sailed  along 
the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Usually  the  natives 
were  more  interested  in  ex- 
changing ivory  or  gold,  or 
silver,  or  some  of  the  natural 
products  which  they  could  not 
use,  for  glass  beads  or  brace- 
lets or  strips  of  bright-colored 
cloth,  but  the  Phoenicians 
nevertheless  spread  the  older 

cultures  a  good  deal  as  the  wind  carries  seed. 

In  trading  the  Phoenicians  used  a  set  of  written  characters 

called  letters.     Where  they  found  them  we  do  not  yet  know, 

but  they  carried  them  all  over  the  civilized  world  and  gave 

to  the  world  the  first  alphabet. 

69.  Early  History  of  the  Hebrews.  —  Inland  from 
Pha'nicia  lies  Palestine,  the  home  of  a  Semitic  people 
called  the  Hebrews.     To  Palestine  in  the  time  of  Ham- 


The  "  Moabite  Stone  "  (an  ex- 
ample of  early  Phoenician  writ- 
ing). 


THE   EAST   MEDITERRANEAN   COAST  53 

murabi  (§  56)  came  A'bra-ham,  an  Arab  sheik  or  patriarch, 
who  had  journeyed  from  ''  Ur  of  the  Chaldees."  Abra- 
ham's great  grandson,  Joseph,  was  sold  into  captivity 
by  his  jealous  brothers  and  was  taken  to  Egypt,  where 
he  rose  high  in  the  esteem  of  the  Pharaoh.  Then  came 
years  of  famine  in  Palestine  which  drew  Joseph's  brothers 
and  many  others  to  the  store-houses  of  Egypt.  Some 
centuries  later  we  find  the  ''  children  of  Israel  "  in  bondage 
in  Egypt,  making  bricks  without  straw  and  oppressed 
by  the  Egyptians. 

Under  the  leadership  of  Moses  the  Hebrews  made  an  Exodus 
"  exodus  "    from    Egypt,    perhaps     under    Rameses    II.   ^^^^  Egypt 

.  „,  1      •  c  •  •         1  1  ^^^  settle- 

Alter   wandermg  lor   a  generation  m  the   desert  wastes  ment  in 

south  of  Palestine,  they  settled  in  Palestine.     For  several   Palestine. 

centuries  they  lived  under  judges,  fighting  against  their 

neighbors  in  order  that  they  might  keep  this  "  land  of  milk 

and  honey  "  for  themselves. 

70.  The    United    Hebrew    Kingdom.  —  The    Hebrews   The  He- 
were  still  like  bands  of  wandering  Arab  tribes.     They  ^^*^^^  ^^"^" 

...  '^     dom  under 

needed  a  national  organization  and  a  national  leader,  so   Saul,  David 
they  chose  a  king,  a  tall,   handsome  man  named  Saul.   ^^^  ^°^°" 

.  mon. 

Saul  was  not  a  good  leader,  but  his  successor,  David,  who 
had  gained  a  reputation  by  killing  the  giant  champion 
of  the  PhiHstines,  Goliath,  was  not  only  a  general  but  was 
the  leader  that  the  Hebrews  needed.  He  built  up  a  king- 
dom which  under  his  son  Sol'o-mon  extended  from  the 
Red  Sea  to  the  Euphrates.  That  is,  it  covered  the  whole 
east  ■  Mediterranean  coast.  Under  David  there  were 
collected  and  perfected  a ,  large  number  of  hymns  of 
praise,  the  Psalms,  and  under  Solomon,  the  wisdom  of 
the  ages  was  gathered  in  Proverbs.  This  Hebrew  king- 
dom was  created  about  1000  b.c,  about  250  years  after 
the  exodus  and  about  the  same  time  before  the  rise  of  the 
great  Assyrian  empire. 

71.  The    History   of   Israel   and    Judea.  —  After  Solo- 


54 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


Kingdom 
divided  into 
Israel  and 
Judah. 
The  "lost 
ten  tribes" 
and  "Baby- 
lonian cap- 
tivity." 


Growth  of 
the  Hebrew 
people 
from  poly- 
theism to 
monothe- 
ism. 


How  the 
Hebrew 
people 
came  to 
worship 
one  God. 


mon's  death  the  Hebrew  kingdom  was  divided  into  two 
kingdoms.  Is'ra-el  in  the  north,  with  her  capital  *Sa- 
via'ri-a,  was  conquered  by  the  Assyrians  in  722  and  many 
from  its  ten  tribes  were  carried  into  exik'  (§  59).  Ju-de'a 
in  the  south  remained  free  until  Nebuchadnezzar  captured 
her  capital  Je-ru'sa-lem  (§61)  (586  b.c.)  and  took  many  of 
its  inhabitants  to  Babylon,  a  period  called  the  Babylonian 
captivity  of  the  Jews,  as  we  have  noticed.  After  the 
return  of  the  exiles  and  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  the 
'prophets  were  the  national  leaders.  Judea  was  then  under 
the  rule  of  Greek  kings  for  centuries  until  the  Romans 
occupied  Palestine  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  later 
made  Palestine  into  a  Roman  province. 

72.  The  Religious  Experience  of  the  Hebrews.  —  Until 
long  after  the  kingdom  of  David  and  Solomon  the  Hebrew 
people  did  not  have  a  radically  different  religious  belief 
from  their  neighbors.  The  great  importance  of  the 
Hebrews  in  the  history  of  the  world  does  not  consist  in 
their  being  at  a  very  early  date  monotheists,  that  is, 
people  who  believe  in  one  God.  Many  of  their  leaders 
were  monotheists,  but  the  Hebrews  as  a  people  at  first 
believed  in  many  gods.  Only  gradually  did  the  people 
realize  that  Je-ho'vah  ivas  the  only  God.  They  did  not 
understand  that  God  is  a  universal,  omnipotent  spirit^ 
and  not,  as  their  neighbors  believed,  an  enlarged  human 
being  with  human  passions  and  weaknesses. 

The  prophets  tried  to  teach  the  people  that  the  one 
God  was  not  a  divine  hero  like  the  gods  of  their  neighbors. 
Although  the  Hebrew  people  came  to  believe  in  one  God 
who  was  Spirit,  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  whole  people 
learned  to  worship,  as  well  as  believe  in,  one  true  God,  until 
after  the  Babylonian  captivity.  This  then  is  the  great 
contribution  of  the  Hebrews  to  the  world's  progress:  that 
they  abandoned  polytheism  for  a  belief  in  one  true  God, 
and  their  belief  grew  into  a  national  worship  of  that 


THE   EAST   MEDITERRANEAN   COAST  55 

God.  Other  peoples  had  isolated  leaders  who  believed 
in  monotheism  and  some  that  even  lived  up  to  their  be- 
lief. The  Hebrew  nation  was  the  only  monotheistic  nation 
of  antiquity. 

73.  Summary.  —  Ancient   Egypt  owed  her  great  prog-  Important 
ress  partly  to   her   isolated   position   and   partly  to  the   ^"  the^^^^°^^ 
exceptional  fertility  caused  by  the  inundations  of  the  Nile,   period  of 
Historical  Egypt  may  be  divided  into  two  great  periods  :  I,   jndepend- 
that  of  Egyptian  independence,  from  3400  B.C.  to  525  B.C. ;  ence. 
II,  that  of  dependence,  525  B.C.  to  the  present.     In  3400 
B.C.  Menes  united  upper  and  lower  Egypt.     The  period 
of  the  pyramid  builders  is  called  the  Old  Kingdom.     The 
feudal  period  when  the  nobles  ruled  is  called  the  Middle 
Kingdom.     After  the  Hyksos  rule  we  have  the  Empire, 
with  Thotmes  III  ruling  from  Nubia  and  Lydia  to  the 
Euphrates  River,  and  Rameses  II,  the  Magnificent.     Then 
follows  a  period  of  decline. 

Egypt  was  first  added   (temporarily)  to  the  Assyrian   Succession 
empire.     It  then  became  in  turn  subject  to  the  Persians,   ^J^^^^ 
to  the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  the  Mohammedans,  the  Turks   empires, 
and  finally  to  the  English.     Egypt's  civilization  was  not 
only  the  earhest  but  one  of  the  best  in  the  ancient  Orient, 
and,  except  that  of  Babylonia,  the  most  influential  of  the 
civilizations  of  the  ancient  near  East. 

The   lower   Tigris-Euphrates   valley,   or  Babylonia,   is  The  geog- 
very  fertile.     Into  Babylonia  the  Sumerians  brought  the   civiiiza^tk>n 
rudiments  of  almost  all  of  the  art,  writing  and  culture  of  of  the 
this  whole  area.     The  Babylonians,  Assyrians,  Hittites,   pifatts "' 
Phoenicians  and  Hebrews,  most  of  whom  were  Semites,   valley. 
in  their  turn  copied  this  culture.     For  a  summary  of  this 
civilization  consult  (§  63). 

The  Babylonians  had  two  great  empire  builders  :  Sargon  Empires  of 
of  Agade  (about  2650  b.c.)  and  Hammurabi  of  Babylon  Asl^rifnd 
(about  1900  B.C.).    Hammurabi's  empire  lasted  several  cen-   the  Hit- 
turies.     The  Assyrian  empire  was  developed  by  a  succes-  *^  ^^' 


56 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


Work  of 
the  PhcE- 
nicians. 


Religious 
importance 
of  the 
Hebrews. 


sion  of  warrior  kings  from  about  750  to  650  B.C.  The 
new  Babylonian  kingdom  under  Nebuchadnezzar  followed 
the  downfall  of  Assyria.  The  Hittite  empire  preceded 
the  first  Assyrian  empire  but  survived  until  the  second. 

The  Phoenicians  were  interested  in  trade,  which  they 
carried  on  with  the  Euphrates  valley,  with  Egypt  and  with 
the  whole  INIediterranean  area.  They  planted  trading 
posts,  some  of  which  grew  into  colonies,  and  they  carried 
the  alphabet  to  all  ancient  peoples.  U 

The  Hebrews  were  a  pastoral  people  who  lived  in  Pales- 
tine. They  were  at  first  ruled  by  judges.  Under  David 
and  Solomon  (1015-935  b.c.)  there  was  a  united  Hebrew 
kingdom  stretching  from  Egj^pt  to  the  Euphrates  River. 
This  kingdom  was  divided  into  Israel  and  Judea.  Israel 
was  conquered  by  the  Assyrians  in  722  b.c.  and  Jerusalem 
was  captured  in  586  b.c.  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  great 
ruler  of  the  later  Babylonian  (Chaldean)  empire.  The 
Jews  struggled  up  from  polytheism  through  belief  in  one 
God  to  a  national  worship  of  a  true  God. 


General  References 

Goodspeed,  History  of  the  Ancient  World,  5-60. 
West,  Ancient  World,  Revised,  11-81. 
Du  Pontet,  The  Ancient  World,  1-115. 
Sayce,  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East. 
Baikie,  The  Story  of  the  Pharaohs. 
Breasted,  History  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians. 
Goodspeed,  A  History  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians. 
Winckler,  History  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria. 
Story  of  the  Nations :    Volumes  on  Ancient  Egypt,  Chaldea, 
Assyria,  Phrrnicia,  The  Jews,  and  Media,  Babylonia  and  Persia. 
Cunningham,  Western  Civilization,  I,  10-70. 
Hall,  The  Ancient  History  of  the  Near  East,  170,  212-325. 
Maspero,  The  Dawn  of  Civilization. 
Macalister,  Civilization  in  Palestine. 
Moret,  In  the  Time  of  the  Pharaohs. 
Handcock,  Mesopotamian  Archeology. 


THE   DAWN   OF  HISTORY  57 

Topics 

The  Tel  el  Amarna  Tablets  :  Breasted,  A  History  of 
Egypt,  332-337,  382-389 ;  Moret,  In  the  Time  of  the  Pharaohs, 
55-98;    Wilson   (ed.),  Egyptian  Literature,   191-314. 

The  Code  of  Hammurabi:  Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient  His- 
tory, I,  No.  20  ;  Handcock,  Mesopotamian  Archeology,  375-386  ; 
Boscawen,  The  First  of  Empires,  195-263. 

Studies 

1.  The  inundations  of  the  Nile.    Maspero,  The  Dawn  of  Civil- 
ization, 22-26. 

2.  The  influence  of  very  early  Egypt  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  in  western  Europe.     Smith,  The  Ancient  Egyptians,  161-183. 

3.  The  building  of  the  pyramids.    Wheeler,  B.  I.,  in  Century, 
34  (1898),  107-109. 

4.  The  rise  of  Thebes.     Ragozin,  Early  Egypt,  74-80. 

5.  The  empire  under  Amenhotep  III.     Baikie,  Story  of  the 
Pharaohs,  153-168. 

6.  The  wars  of  Rameses  II.    Breasted,  History  of  the  Ancient 
Egyptians,  303-313. 

7.  Egyptian  architecture.     Baikie,  J.,  in  National  Geographic 
Magazine,  24  (1913),  992-1020. 

8.  The  geography  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  basin.    Goodspeed, 
History  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  1-13. 

9.  The    Sumerians.     King,    History    of   Sumer    and   Accad, 
56-83. 

10.  The  work  of  Layard.  Rogers,  History  of  Bahijlonia  and 
Assyria,  I,  138-159. 

11.  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient  History, 
I,  No.  11. 

12.  Commerce,  business  and  industry  in  Babylonia.  Winck- 
ler.  History  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  160-164. 

13.  The  Assyrian  army  and  methods.  Maspero,  The  Struggle 
of  the  Nations,  626-642. 

14.  The  city  of  Sargon  II.  Maspero,  Ancient  Egypt  and 
Assyria,  194-214. 

15.  The  civilization  of  Assyria.  Winckler,  History  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria,  286-310. 

16.  Jonah  at  Nineveh.  The  Bible,  Book  of  Jonah,  chaps.  Ill 
and  IV. 


58  THE   NEAR  EAST 

17.  The  hanging  gardens  of  Babylon.  Wheeler,  B.  I.,  in 
Century,  34  (1898),  220-222. 

18.  Daniel  and  the  fall  of  Babylon.  The  Bible,  Book  of 
Daniel,  chap.  V. 

19.  Conquests  of  the  greatest  Hittite  king.  Garstang,  The 
Story  of  the  Hittites,  32.3-339. 

20.  Phoenician  ships  and  commerce.  Maspero,  Ancient 
Egypt  and  Assyria,  165—168. 

21.  The  conquest  of  Samaria  by  Assyria.  The  Bible,  Second 
Book  of  the  Kings,  chap.  XVII,  chap.  XVIII,  1-12. 

22.  A  psalm  of  praise.      The  Bible,  Book  of  Psalms,  chap.  CI II. 

23.  The  development  of  Hebrew  monotheism.  Macalister, 
Civilization  of  Palestine,  chap.  VII. 

Questions 

1.  Why  is  Egypt  "the  gift  of  the  Nile"? 

2.  Explain  these  terms :  dynastj',  predynastic,  pyramid, 
sphinx,  Pharaoh,  Middle  Kingdom,  the  Hyksos,  feudal  period, 
mummy,  hieroglyphics. 

3.  Why  did  the  Pharaohs  build  pj-ramids  ?  How  did  they 
pay  the  laborers  ?  How  capable  were  the  engineers  that  built 
the  pyramids  ?     How  skilful  were  the  stone  masons  ? 

4.  What  is  a  kingdom  ?  What  is  an  empire  ?  Why  should 
we  call  the  Egypt  of  Menes  a  kingdom  and  that  of  Thotmes  III 
an  empire  ? 

5.  Show  why  the  Hj^ksos  rule  led  to  the  empire.  Give  the 
extent  of  the  empire.  How  long  did  it  last  ?  Name  and  de- 
scribe its  capital. 

6.  What  was  the  importance  of  Egypt's  isolation  ? 

7.  Give  the  periods  in  Egyptian  history  from  Menes  to  the 
conquests  by  Persia  in  525  b.c.  Name  in  order  the  empires  that 
have  ruled  Egypt  from  525  b.c.  to  the  present  day. 

8.  Give  six  names  that  are  distinctive  of  Egyptian  civilization. 

9.  What  do  we  owe  to  Egj^pt. 

10.  Compare  in  respect  to  size,  location,  accessibility  and  gen- 
eral resources,  the  Nile  valley,  the  east  Mediterranean  coast  and 
the  Tigris-Euphrates  basin. 

11.  Why  should  the  world's  earliest  civilizations  have  been 
developed  in  the  Delta  of  the  Nile  and  in  Babylonia  ? 

12.  Show  the  importance  of  the  Euphrates  river:  (1)  as  the 
seat  of  an  early  empire ;  (2)  as  a  trade  route  between  East  and 
West. 


THE   DAWN  OF  HISTORY  59 

13.  Who  were  the  Semites  ?  Show  that  all  of  the  Semites  of 
western  Asia  were  more  interested  in  trade  than  in  anything  else. 

14.  Show  that  Hammurabi  was  a  great  man. 

15.  What  is  meant  by  the  AssjTian  system  of  deportation  ? 
What  name  is  used  to  explain  the  deportation  of  the  people  of 
Israel  ?     to  explain  that  of  the  Jews  ? 

16.  Why  was  there  great  rejoicing  when  Nineveh  fell  ? 

17.  Why  is  the  influence  of  Babylonian  civilization  "perhaps 
even  greater  than  that  of  Egypt"  ? 

18.  On  a  map  show  the  extent  of  the  Hittite  empire.  Did  the 
Greeks  probably  owe  anj^thing  to  the  Hittites  ? 

19.  Why  were  the  Phoenicians  traders  rather  than  warriors  ? 
Name  two  great  Phoenician  cities ;  three  Phoenician  colonies. 
(See  map  opp.  page  111.) 

20.  Outline  the  steps  in  the  history  of  the  Hebrews  from  the 
time  of  Joseph  to  that  of  the  later  Prophets. 

21.  Trace  the  chief  steps  in  the  development  of  Hebrew  mono- 
theism. 


CHAPTER   III 


CIVILIZATION  OF  THE  NEAR  EAST 


The  Ruling  Classes 


Classes  in 

ancient 

society. 


The  king, 
his  titles 
and  his 
despotic 
power. 


Home  of 
the  king 
and  his 
harem. 


74.  The  King  and  his  Government.  —  In  ancient  times 
there  was  a  very  sharp  distinction  between  the  ruUng 
classes  and  the  common  people.  There  was  an  equally 
sharp  distinction  between  those  who  belonged  to  royalty 
and  the  other  privileged  classes  —  nobles  and  priests, 
and  possibly  soldiers  or  scribes. 

At  the  head  of  each  government  was  a  king.  In  Egj'pt 
this  king  was  called  a  Pharaoh.  Whether  he  ruled  a  tiny 
city  or  a  mighty  empire,  the  king  was  a  despot.  Even  if 
his  kingdom  w^as  insignificant,  he  assumed  a  high-sounding 
title,  as  "  King  of  the  four  quarters  of  the  Earth,"  or 
"  King  of  the  World."  Succession  to  the  throne  was 
hereditary,  that  is,  one  of  the  king's  sons  succeeded  him  as 
king. 

75.  The  King's  Palace.  —  The  kings  lived  in  palaces 
which  were  buildings  of  brick  or  stone  of  one  or  two  stories. 
Outside  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  and  the  island  of 
Crete  these  palaces  were  far  less  pretentious  than  the 
temples  built  to  the  gods.  There  were  separate  apart- 
ments for  the  Avives  of  the  king,  for  every  oriental  poten- 
tate of  importance  married  a  sister  or  daughter  of  every 
other  king  with  whom  he  was  allied.  These  wives  were 
of  unequal  rank,  their  rank  depending  on  the  importance 
of  the  kingdom  from  which  they  came.  Only  one  of  these 
wives  was  called  queen,  and  naturally  one  of  her  sons 
succeeded  to  the  throne. 

60 


THE   RULING   CLASSES 


61 


of  an 

Egyptian 

palace. 


"The  Egyptian  palaces  are  not  built  for  eternity  like  the  Maspero's 
temples.  They  are  light  constructions  of  wood,  brick,  or  un-  description 
dressed  freestone,  but  rarely  blended  with  granite  except  for  the 
decoration  of  the  great  doorways.  They  recall  the  villa  of 
Nakhtminou  <a  noble)  on  a  large  scale  :  isolated  pavilions  for  the 
harem,  storehouses  for  the  provisions,  barracks  and  quarters  for 
the  royal  guard  and  for  the  personages  attached  to  the  house- 
hold ;  large  courts  planted  with  trees,  gardens  with  kiosks  and 
pools,  where  the  women  can  amuse  themselves.  A  strong 
crenellated  wall  gives  the  dwelling  the  appearance  of  a  fortress 
or  of  an  entrenched  camp,  and  at  times,  in  case  of  riots  or  con- 
spiracies, the  royal  god  has  owed  his  safety  to  the  solidity  of  his 
doors  and  the  height  of  his  walls.  .  .  .  The  gallery,  where  the 
king  sits  during  the  audience,  is  placed  exactly  opposite  the 
entrance  gate,  projecting  from  the  wall  of  the  fagade,  and  com- 
municating directly  with  the  private  apartments.  It  is  raised 
four  or  five  yards  above  the  ground,  ornamented  breast-high 
with  a  cushion  of  stuff  embroidered  with  red  and  blue,  and  shel- 
tered by  a  canopy  of  curiously  carved  planks,  supported  by  two 
slender  wooden  pillars  painted  in  bright  colours  and  ornamented 
at  the  top  by  many-coloured  streamers." 


76.  The  Nobles.  —  Below  the  king  in  social  position  Position  of 
were  the  nobles,  who  lived  at  the  king's  court  or  culti-  *^^  noble. 
vated  the  great  estates  of  the  realm,  and  led  his  forces  in 
battle.  Their  birth  and  their  wealth  gave  them  many 
privileges,  and  yet  they  were  the  subjects  of  a  great  mon- 
arch, for  the  king  might  deprive  them  of  their  lives,  their 
lands  or  their  privileges.  The  king  did  not  often  do  this, 
for  although  he  was  absolute  and  all-powerful,  he  needed 
the  help  of  the  nobles  and  could  not  afford  to  make  them 
enemies.^ 

The  houses  of  the  nobles  were  comparatively  comfort-  Home  for 
less.  In  Assyria  and  in  some  other  countries  there  were  *^^  ^°  ^" 
bedsteads,   with  the  mattresses  raised   above  the  floor. 


1  Nevertheless,  except  in  Egypt  after  the  building  of  the  pyramids, 
most  of  the  noble  families  did  not  possess  the  same  estates  for  many  cen- 
turies. When  a  king  of  a  new  dynasty  came  to  the  throne,  he  usually 
gave  the  lands  and  the  offices  and  the  privileges  to  his  own  favorites. 


62 


THE  NEAR  EAST 


Caps, 
clothing, 
shoes  and 
ornaments. 


There  was  little  furniture  in  the  rooms  —  a  few  stools  or 
plain  chairs,  coffers  for  storing  articles,  perhaps  a  couple 

of  (lining  couches 
on  which  the  noble 
and  his  guests  re- 
clined about  the 
common  dish  from 
which  they  ate. 
When  a  great  vic- 
tory had  been 
gained  or  an  im- 
portant feast  was 
celebrated,  every 
one  ate  and  drank 
to  excess,  the 
whole  city  giving 
itself  over  to  the 
orgy.  More  than 
one  city  owed  its  destruction  to  its  helpless  state  after  such 
a  bacchanalian^  riot,  as  was  the  case  in  Babylon  after 
Belshazzar's  feast. 

77.  Dress  of  Noblemen  and  Women.  —  The  nobles  did 
not  spare  expense  on  dress,  for  their  robes  were  often 
embroidered  with  gold  lace  and  they  wore  many  precious 
stones.  The  head  gear  was  frequently  a  rounded  cap  of 
gaudy  color  and  expensive  material.  The  men  wore 
short  breeches  or  a  tunic,  and  the  women  a  plain  tunic 
or  sheath  garment  that  came  to  the  ankles.  Both  men  and 
women  of  high  degree  wore  over  the  shoulder  and  around 
the  body  a  mantle  that  could  be  arranged  according  to  the 
weather,  or  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  wearer.  The  Egyptians 
were  fond  of  linen  of  plain  colors,  but  the  Asiatics  favored 
woollen  plaids  of  gaudy  appearance.  Heelless  sandals 
were  worn  on  the  feet,  and  ornaments  of  all  kinds  on  the 


An  Egj'ptian  House. 


1  From  Bacchus,  the  god  of  wine. 


THE   RULING  CLASSES 


63 


neck,  wrists  and  ankles.  The  women  powdered  and 
painted  outrageously,  hut  the  higher  class  women  rarely 
appeared  in  public  unless  they  were  veiled,  and  attended 
by  servants. 

78.  The  Priest  as  Priest,  Business  Man  and  Scholar.  — 
The  priest  was  a  man  of  as  great  importance  as  the  noble, 
for  religion  was  more  important  than  government  to  the 
oriental  of  the  ancient  world.  Certain  families  were 
usually  set  aside  for  the  priesthood,  although  members  of 
others  might  become  priests,  if  they  showed  skill  in  the 
performance  of  rites  or  in  the  learning  of  the  priests.  We 
shall  consider  the  priests  again  under  the  subject  of  reHgion. 

The  priest  was  not  only  the  guardian  of  the  temple  and 
the  representative  of  the  god.  He  was  a  merchant  as 
well.  He  had  charge  of  the  very  extensive  lands  belong- 
ing to  the  temple  and  disposed  of  the  cattle  and  the  sheep, 
the  doves  or  the  wine,  the  grain  or  the  fruit  which  wor- 
shippers brought  as  offerings  to  his  god.  He  was  head- 
master of  the  numerous  slaves  that  did  fine  metal  work 
or  carving  for  the  altars  or  walls  of  the  temple,  or  for  sale 
to  customers. 

The  priests  monopolized  the  learning  of  the  Orient. 
They  studied  the  stars.  They  alone  knew  the  secret 
meaning  of  the  heavens.  Under  their  guidance  were  the 
soothsayers,  the  astrologers  who  foretold  the  future  by 
watching  the  stars,  those  who,  by  divination,  as  in  exami- 
nation of  the  flight  of  birds  or  the  bodies  of  animals,  pre- 
dicted events,  and  those  who  cast  out  evil  spirits  and 
practised  medicine.^ 


The  fami- 
lies of 
priests. 


The  priest 
as  land- 
lord, mer- 
chant and 
business 
manager. 


The    priests 
and  learn- 
ing.    Su- 
pervision of 
schools  and 
sooth- 
sayers. 


i"The  medicines  used  in  Egypt  were  of  four  kinds  —  draughts, 
blisters,  powders  and  clysters,  minerals  as  well  as  vegetables  being  em- 
ployed in  their  composition.  But  progress  in  medical  knowledge,  as 
in  art,  was  checked  in  the  time  of  the  Middle  Empire  by  the  rule  that 
new  medicines  and  treatment  were  adopted  by  the  doctor  at  the  risk  of 
being  put  to  death  if  the  patient  died."  Sayce,  The  Ancient  Empires 
of  the  East,  p.  27. 


64 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


The  mer- 
chant. 


Life  of  the  People 

79.  The  Professional  Classes.  —  The  privileged  classes 
included  the  members  of  the  royal  family,  the  nobility  and 
the  priests.     Between  them  and  the  common  people  were 

those  persons  of 
wealth  and  educa- 
tion that  we  can 
call  the  profes- 
sional classes. 
These  were  the 
scribes  and  the 
merchants.  When 
a  boy  showed  ex- 
ceptional talent, 
he  was  sent  to  a 
school  for  a  few 
months  or  years 
in  order  to  get  an 
education.  He  be- 
came acquainted 
with  a  few  of  the 
figures  and  the 
signs  used  in  writ- 
ing and  in  making 
accounts.  With  this  slender  foundation  of  general  knowl- 
edge he  was  apprenticed  to  a  scribe,  under  whom  he  copied 
bills  or  manuscripts.  By  diligent  practice  and  by  mem- 
orizing the  symbols  that  he  used,  he  gained  in  time  a  wide 
vocabulary,  so  that  he  was  able  to  write  letters  and  pre- 
pare manuscripts  (§  99). 

The  merchant  was  no  less  important  than  the  scribe, 
and,  in  fact,  among  the  commercial  Babylonians  the  mer- 
chants formed  practically  one  of  the  privileged  classes, 
for  the  prosperity  of  the  lower  Tigris-Euphrates  valley 


The  Scribe. 


LIFE   OF   THE   PEOPLE 


65 


treatment 
of  the 
peasant. 


depended  largely  on  trade.     We  shall  study  the  merchant 
and  his  methods  more  fully  later  (§  109). 

80.  The  Lot  of  the  Peasant.  —  The  common  people  The  harsh 
who  lived  in  the  cities  or  on  the  estates  of  the  nobles  or 
on  the  lands  of  the  temple  may  be  called  peasants.  They 
were  rude,  uneducated,  hard-working  people,  who  lived 
in  poverty,  had  no  share  in  anything  except  toil  and  were 
treated  little  better  than  slaves.  As  the  old  Egyptian 
proverb  expressed  it,  ''  Man  has  a  back  and  only  obeys 


<r  ■     S 


TXocH»v.9'J*"' 


The  Bastinado. 


when  he  is  beaten."  The  peasant  took  toil  and  beatings 
for  granted,  since  that  was  the  approved  order  of  things. 
Was  it  not  his  pleasure  as  well  as  his  duty  to  work  for  the 
master  ?  Why  should  the  master  look  after  him  unless 
he  did  the  master's  work?  The  man  who  tried  to  get 
along  without  a  master  and  protector  was  soon  an  outlaw, 
with  his  hand  against  every  man  and  every  man's  hand 
against  him. 

The  following  poem  shows  that  life  was  full  of  toil 
even  for  the  artisans,  who  felt  themselves  to  be  above  the 
peasant : 

I  have  seen  the  blacksmith  at  his  work  in  the  heat  of  his 
forge  ;  he  has  the  fingers  of  a  crocodile,  and  is  black  as  fishspawn. 
The  artisans  of  all  kinds  that  handle  the  chisel,  have  they  more 
rest  than  the  peasant?  Their  fields  are  the  wood  they  shape, 
their  profession  is  the  metal ;   even  in  the  night  they  are  called, 

F 


An  ancient 
poem  on 
the  hard 
lot  of  the 
workers. 


66 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


Mud  huts 
and  their 
furnishings. 


and  they  work  again  after  their  labor  of  the  day ;  even  in  the 
night  their  house  is  lighted  up  and  they  are  awake.  The  stone- 
mason seeks  his  work  in  every  kind  of  hard  stone.  When  he 
has  completed  his  orders  and  his  hands  are  tired,  does  he  rest? 
He  must  be  in  the  workyard  at  sunrise,  even  if  his  knees  and  spine 
break  with  his  toil.  The  ])arber  shaves  even  in  the  night ;  to 
be  able  to  eat,  to  be  able  to  lie  down,  he  must  go  from  district 
to  district  searching  for  customers ;  he  must  overwork  himself, 
as  well  as  his  two  hands,  to  fill  his  l)elly  ;  thus  the  honey  is  eaten 
only  by  those  who  make  it.  The  dyer,  his  fingers  stink  with 
the  odor  of  decayed  fish,  his  two  eyes  ache  with  weariness,  his 
hand  never  ceases  renewing  pieces  of  stuff,  until  he  detests  the 
sight  of  stuff.  The  shoe-maker  is  very  miserable,  and  is  forever 
complaining ;  his  health  is  like  that  of  a  dead  fish,  and  he  has 
nothing  to  eat  but  his  leather. 


81.   The  Peasant's  Home, 
was  not  a  thing  of  beauty. 


—  The  home  of  the  peasant 
It  was  a  little  hut  of  reeds 


The  Peasant's  House. 

plastered  with  mud  or  built  of  half-dried  bricks  of  mud 
from  the  nearest  river  or  irrigation  ditch.  The  Egyptian 
was  a  short  man,  but  he  would  thrust  his  head  through 
the  roof  if  he  suddenly  stood  erect.  As  there  was  little 
rain  in  either  the  Nile  or  the  Euphrates  valley,  roofs 
were  made  chiefly  to  keep  off  the  burning  sun.  This 
hut  did  not  need  windows  and  the  door  needed  no  lock, 
for  there  was  Uttle  to  steal,  as  there  was  little  furniture, 


LIFE   OF  THE   PEOPLE 


67 


and  the  family  food  supply  was  prepared  from  day  to 
day. 

At  night  the  whole  family  slept  in  the  one  room,  or  two,  Beds  and 
if  the  father  was  unusually  capable  or  prosperous.  If  they  ^^o^^ing. 
had  no  rushes  or  mats,  they  slept  on  the  earthen  floor. 
They  did  not  change  their  clothing  at  night,  for  the  children 
wore  none,  the  man  used  only  short  cotton  breeches  and 
the  woman  had  only  a  single  round  garment  that 
reached  below  the  knees  and  was  held  by  straps  over  the 
shoulders. 

82.  The  Care  of  the  Home.  —  The  food  of  the  common  Foods. 
people  was  not    abundant,  and,  except  for  the  fruit,  by  P^epara- 

cakes. 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood 
Women  Grinding  at  the  Mill. 


no  means  appetizing.  Apples,  figs,  dates  and  apricots 
were  known ;  onions  and  beans,  cucumbers  and  pumpkins 
were  used  in  season.     In  making  cakes  the  first  task  was 


68 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


Care  of  the 
home. 


to  grind  the  grain,  usually  wheat  or  barley.  This  was 
done  on  a  hollowed  stone  by  using  a  pestle  of  hard  stone. 
An  hour's  labor  would  suffice  partially  to  mash  the  grain 
and  break  off  a  few  splinters  of  stone.  Having  been 
molded  together  into  a  paste,  these  would  be  placed  in  hot 
ashes  to  bake.  The  cake  was  an  unleavened,  half-baked, 
badly  scorched  and  unwholesome  mess. 

The  supply  of  fruit,  cakes  and  other  foods  was  kept  in 
earthen  jars.  Water  was  brought  from  the  nearest 
river  or  pool  in  similar  jars.  The  preparation  of  food 
and  the  care  of  the  children  and  the  garden,  the  marketing 
and   a   hundred  other  duties   aged  the  women  quickly. 


J^ 

ps^ 

0P. 

|i|i!^                "wm 

''/  '             -  l..,:^,,*-*.  .  .•'^^^^^^^^^*" 

*                               —  _.                          1 

Woman  making  Bread. 


Life  of 
semi- 
slavery. 


83.  The  Position  of  Woman.  —  The  oriental  woman 
did  not  have  an  enviable  lot.  Except  in  Egypt  she  was 
absolutely  under  the  control  of  the  head  of  her  family. 
She  might  be  sold  or  beaten  or  killed.  In  Egypt  there  was 
something  like  equality  among  men  and  women,  but  in 
Egypt  the  lot  of  a  poor  man  was  hard,  and  that  of  a  woman 


LIFE   OF  THE   PEOPLE  69 

was  harder.  At  the  best  her  hfe  was  a  life  of  drudgery, 
and  at  the  worst,  that  is,  in  other  countries,  she  was  Uttle 
better  than  a  slave.  In  fact,  female  slaves  were  a  drug 
on  the  market,  being  sold  at  about  one  third  of  the  price 
of  men,  for,  since  all  women  were  little  better  than  slaves, 
even  inexpensive  slave  women  were  dearer  than  wives. 

84.   Marriage   and   Divorce   in  the   Ancient   Orient.  —   Marriage 
The  great  majority  of  all  children,  boys  and  girls,  died  ^°^.V^^  ^^^ 
in  infancy,  for  unwholesome  food,  lack  of  care,  and  filthy  fathers, 
surroundings    caused   a   high   death-rate.     Medical   skill   ^^^^orce  for 

^  ^  .  .  ,  men  and 

was  unknown  except  among  the  rich,  magic  being  used  to  lack  of 
drive  away  evil  spirits  from  the  sick  body.  If  a  girl  ^^^^^^  ^^^ 
survived  to  her  fifteenth  year,  she  began  to  look  forward 
to  marriage.  Ordinarily  the  fathers  of  the  bride  and 
groom  came  together  and  made  a  bargain,  in  which  the 
price  of  the  girl  was  agreed  upon  and  the  amount  of  her 
do'^vry  was  specified.^  In  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley 
this  agreement  was  usually  recorded  on  a  clay  tablet 
(§  102).  Among  the  lower  classes  very  few  men  had  more 
than  one  wife  and  marriages  were  ordinarily  for  life. 
Wealthy  nobles  occasionally  had  two  or  more  wives, 
but  monoga7ny  was  the  rule  and  not  the  exception  in  the 
ancient  East.  Men  might  divorce  their  wives  at  will, 
but  women  could  secure  a  divorce  only  for  the  very  best 
reasons.  In  Egypt  women  had  special  property  rights, 
as  women  have  in  most  of  the  states  of  our  Union ; 
but  elsewhere  a  married  woman  had  only  that  property 
which  she  owned  before  marriage  or  which  she  had  bought 
with  the  money  her  husband  had  paid  for  her.  Even  then 
she  might  have  more  property  rights  than  some  modern 
European  women. 

^  It  is  reported  by  Herodotus  that  at  one  time  in  Babylon  it  was  the 
custom  to  offer  brides  at  auction  once  a  year.  The  most  beautiful  were 
offered  first  and  the  least  attractive  last.  With  the  latter  was  given  a 
dowry  made  up  of  the  money  paid  for  the  former. 


70 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


Slavery  not 
common. 
Sale  of 
captives  as 
slaves. 


Slave 
markets. 
Treatment 
of  slaves. 


85.  Slaves.  —  There  was  not  a  great  deal  of  slavery  in 
the  ancient  East.  As  the  common  people  were  numerous 
and  their  position  was  little  better  than  slavery,  slaves 
were  less  necessary  than  in  later  times.  In  Egypt  there 
seems  to  have  been  almost  no  slavery  ])efore  the  empire 
was  extended  under  Thotmes  III.  In  Babylonia  slavery 
was  much  more  common,  for  traders  brought  slaves 
to  the  large  cities  and  the  conquests  of  the  kings  made 
many  captives  into  slaves.  In  the  earlj^  history  of  war- 
fare, the  inhabitants  of  captured  cities  were  usually  put 
to  death.  Then  followed  the  practice  of  killing  the  men 
and  saving  the  w^omen  and  children.  Finally,  men  as 
well  as  others  were  spared. 

Two  of  the  greatest  slave  markets  were  the  two  greatest 
commercial  cities  of  ancient  times,  Babjdon  and  Tyre. 
The  one  received  and  sold  the  slaves  of  the  East,  the  other 
those  of  the  West.  Women  were  sold  at  about  four 
shekels  of  silver,  about  three  dollars  of  our  money,  but 
equal  perhaps  to  fifty  dollars  in  purchasing  value.  Men 
were  sold  at  from  ten  to  twelve  shekels.  The  slave  became 
the  absolute  possession  of  his  master,  and  was  usually 
treated  with  considerable  cruelty,  unless  he  was  a  trusted 
house  servant  or  an  educated  person  who  looked  after 
his  master's  business. 


Primitive 
faith. 

Everything 
in  nature 
a  spirit. 


Religion 

86.  Primitive  Spirit  Religions.  —  To  primitive  man 
the  world  was  full  of  invisible  spirits.  The  rock  and  the 
tree,  the  stream  and  the  mountains  were  deities,  but  the 
great  gods  w^re  those,  not  of  the  earth,  but  of  the  heavens. 
The  sun  and  the  moon  and  the  stars  wTre  the  gods  that 
had  power  and  saved  or  wrecked  the  lives  of  men.  These 
gods  must  be  appeased,  lest  in  their  anger,  they  destroy 
men.  These  ideas  may  seem  childish,  but  the  race  was 
still  in  its  infancy,  so  far  as  intellectual  and  spiritual  prog- 


RELIGION  71 

ress  was  concerned.  These  beliefs  also  were  widespread, 
and  we  see  them  perhaps  most  clearly  among  those 
comparatively  late  and  eminently  practical  people,  the 
Romans. 

87.  Patron  Deities  of  Cities  and  Countries.  —  Although   The  sun- 
all  ancient  peoples  had  many  of  these  beliefs  in  common,   ^^^!"     ^^^^ 
some  worshipped  one  power  more  than  another.     Usually  become 

it  was  the  sun-god  that  was  the  greatest  of  the  long  list   ^^^^o^^l 

...  gods. 

of  deities,  for  the  sun  represented  the  greatest  power  in 
nature.  Ra,  the  Egyptian  sun-god,  and  Mar-duk,  the  sun- 
god  of  Babylon,  had  unusual  power  for  many  centuries. 
Many  stories  were  told  of  these  gods,  the  Babylonians 
having  very  extensive  legends  of  the  creation  of  the  world 
by  Mar-duk.  These  gods  were  originally  the  gods  of  one 
city,  for  each  city  had  its  own  sets  of  deities,  but,  as  that 
city  became  powerful,  they  were  worshipped  throughout 
the  country  of  which  that  city  became  the  capital. 

88.  The  Legend  of  Osiris.  —  The  Egyptians  were  the   Osiris  and 
first  people  to  develop  a  real  religion  out  of  these  beliefs   ^^*"    J^^~ 
in  their  deities,  for  they  came  to  believe  that   some  of  isis  and 
their  gods  were  spiritual  powers  rather  than  manifestations   ^°^^^  °^®^ 

feet. 

of  nature.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  their  legends  tells 
of  0-d'ris,  who  was  a  sun-god  that  had  taken  the  place 
of  Ra.  Osiris  was  married  to  his  sister  Fsis,  the  dawn,  and 
their  son  was  called  Ho'rus.  Osiris  was  attacked  by  Set, 
the  enemy  of  mankind,  and  by  many  of  his  followers, 
disease,  famine,  drought.  Set  succeeded  in  slaying  Osiris, 
but  the  faithful  Isis,  after  a  long  search,  finds  the  body, 
brings  it  back  to  Egypt,  where  she  embalms  it  and  partly 
restores  it  to  life.  Osiris  cannot  remain  on  earth  as  one 
of  the  gods,  but  he  passes  to  the  abode  of  the  dead,  where 
he  sits  in  judgment  on  the  souls  of  the  departed.  Horus 
follows  Set  and  conquers  him,  and  hence  is  called  the 
redeemer.  The  Pharaohs  considered  themselves  sons  of 
Horus. 


72 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


Embalming 
mummies. 


89.  Egyptian  Belief  in  Immortality  of  the  Soul.  —  The 
EgjT^tian  ])elioved  that  every   person  had   a  "  double," 

or  soul.  So  long 
as  the  body  was 
kept  from  decay, 
so  long  the  soul 
lived  and  pros- 
pered. If  the 
body  was  de- 
stroyed, the  soul 
died  also. 
Therefore  at 
death  every 
corpse  was  em- 
balmed, as  the 
body  of  Osiris 
had  been  em- 
balmed. By  the 
use  of  perfumes 
and  chemicals  de- 
cay was  stopped, 
and  the  body  was 
wrapped  in  lin- 
ens, coarse  or 
fine  according  to 
the  wealth  of  the 
family.  These 
mummies,  as  we 
call  them,  have 
scarcely  altered 
in  forty  centuries 

Mummy  and  Mummy  Case.  ^^^    y^^  ^^j^  look 

upon  the  almost  unchanged  features  of  many  early  Pha- 
raohs. 

90.  Judgment  of  the  Dead  (Egyptian).  —  If  the  body 


RELIGION 


73 


was  preserved,  the  soul  passed  into  the  abode  of  the  dead   Emphasis 
to  be  judged  by  Osiris.     Judgment  was  pronounced  on   pu^J^^.*^^ 
the  soul  by  Osiris  according  to  the  life  that  the  dead  man   and  right 
had  lived.     The  questions  asked  of  the  soul  deal  with   ^^^^^s- 
character  and  not  with  forms  of  ceremonies  or  earthly 
rank  or  position.     Here  are  some  of  the  forty  answers 
that  an  upright  soul  could  give  :  I  have  not  done  iniquity ; 
I  have  not  uttered  falsehood ;    I  have  not  uttered  evil 


>^'S-' 


The  Judgment  of  the  Soul  at  the  Tribunal  of  Osiris. 


words ;  I  have  not  pried  into  matters  (to  make  mischief) ; 
I  have  not  been  a  man  of  anger ;  I  have  not  stirred  up 
strife;  I  have  not  judged  hastily;  I  have  not  sought 
for  distinctions ;  I  have  not  increased  my  wealth,  except 
with  such  things  as  are  mine  own  possessions.  Of  course, 
the  ordinary  Egyptian  did  not  understand  the  meaning 
of  this  exalted  rehgion.  In  fact,  the  ordinary  Egyptian 
was  not  allowed  in  the  temples,  since  he  had  no  offering 
for  the  temple  gods,  and  must  worship  the  minor  gods  as 
best  he  could. 

91.  The  Babylonian  Story  of  the  Deluge.  —  Other 
early  people  had  stories  of  their  gods  and  the  great  deeds 
that  they  performed,  but  no  other  very  early  people  lonians 
had  such  noble  rehgious  ideas  as  the  Egyptians.  Among 
the  multitude  of  stories  of  the  Babylonians,  that  of  the 
deluge  may  be  considered,  because  it  became  part  of 
the  religious  faith  of  western  Asia. 


Inferior 
religion  of 
the  Baby- 


74 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


The  story 
of  the 
deluge. 


Religions. 
Architec- 
ture, tombs. 


The  earth  was  filled  with  wicked  men  wlio  neglected 
the  gods.  At  a  council  of  the  gods  it  was  decided  to  send 
a  deluge  upon  the  earth.  One  of  the  gods  warned  a 
faithful  follower,  urging  him  to  "  construct  a  wooden 
house,  build  a  ship,  abandon  thy  goods,  seek  life ;  throw 
away  thy  possessions,  save  thy  life  and  place  in  the 
vessel  all  the  seed  of  life.  ..."  This  Babylonian 
*'  Noah  "  warned  the  people,  who  ridiculed  him,  but  he 
constructed  an  ark,  140  cubits  long  and  100  cubits  broad. 
Then  came  the  rain-god  in  anger  and  for  six  days  the  storm 
raged.  On  the  seventh,  the  storm  abating,  the  waters 
began  to  subside.  On  the  twelfth  day  the  ark  rested 
on  a  mountain,  and  a  few  days  later  all  that  were  in  the 
ark  came  forth  to  replenish  the  earth. 

92.  The  Temples  of  the  Gods  in  Egypt.  —  All  of  the 
greatest  monuments  of  the  ancient  world  dealt  with  reli- 
gion.    In  Egypt  the  great  pyramids  were  only  tombs  of 


Luxor  Restored. 


Beauty  of 
the  build- 
ings and 
wealth  of 
the  temples 
in  Egypt. 


Pharaohs  who  preferred  splendid  tombs  for  their  bodies 
after  death  rather  than  fine  palaces  while  they  were  living. 
The  finest  religious  structures  were,  of  course,  temples. 
The  Egyptian  temples  of  Luxor  and  of  Karnak  are  famous, 
although  they  lack  the  simplicity  and  style  of  earlier 
colonnades.  They  were  completed  at  a  time  when  Amon, 
the  great  god  of  Thebes,  was  the  most  powerful  deity 
of   Egypt   and   controlled   more   than  one  tenth  of  the 


RELIGION 


75 


agricultural  lancl.^  In  those  days  the  Pharaoh  turned 
over  most  of  the  spoils  of  war  to  the  temples,  willing 
devotees  made  valuable  presents,  unwilling  fellahs  (work- 
men) contributed  forced  labor  on  ornate  buildings,  and 
the  temples  in  general  absorbed  the  wealth  and  prosperity 
of  the  people. 

93.  Temples  and  Temple  Lands  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates 
Valley.  —  In  Babylonia  and  Assyria  the  temples  were 
not  made  of  stone  col- 
umns, but  were  huge 
piles  of  brick,  ordina- 
rily of  seven  stories. 
Each  story  was  some- 
what smaller  than  the 
one  below.  Each  was 
dedicated  to  a  planet 
and  was  in  a  color  of 
its  own.  The  seventh 
was  sometimes  cov- 
ered with  gold  plates. 
This  upper  room  only 
the  king  or  the  high 
priest  might  enter. 

In  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  valley  the 
temples  owned  most 
of  the  land  about  the 
cities,  for  all  the  land 
belonged  to  the  gods 
and  was  divided  among  their  representatives,  the  priests 
and  the  king,  the  former  owning  the  land  about  the  cities, 


Babylonian  Temple. 


Temples  to 
the  sun-god 
in  the 
Tigris- 
Euphrates 
basin. 


Temple 
lands  in 
the  Tigris- 
Euphrates 
valley. 


1  All  of  the  temples  controlled  about  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  land  in 
Egypt.  As  recently  as  1789,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  controlled 
about  one  fifth  of  the  land  in  France,  and  a  larger  percentage  in  some 
other  countries. 


76 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


Superstition 
and  sub- 
servience of 
the  people. 


Large  num- 
bers of 
deities. 
Unreligious 
character 
of  the 
worship. 


Monothe- 
ism rare 
even  among 
the  early- 
Hebrews. 


and  the  latter,  in  person  or  through  nobles,  controlling  the 
rest. 

94.  Polytheism  and  the  People.  —  To  the  people, 
ignorant  and  steeped  in  superstition,  this  religion  of 
many  gods,  expensive  temples  and  wealthy  priests  was  a 
necessit}^  although  it  did  nothing  for  them  except  increase 
their  already  heavy  burdens.  They  seldom  entered  the 
temples  and  less  often  asked  aid  of  the  priests.  Yet 
the  people  gave  freely  of  their  time.  They  did  not 
begrudge  to  the  temples  the  rents  of  the  gods'  lands. 
In  fact,  they  believed  much  more  than  did  the  priests  in 
the  gods  and  in  their  power. 

The  people  of  ancient  times,  except  a  few  leaders  and 
thinkers,  believed  in  polytheism.  In  general,  over  western 
Asia  the  religions  were  much  alike.  The  great  god  might 
be  called  Marduk  or  Bel  (Baal)  or  As'shur,  the  great  god- 
dess was  usually  Ish'tar  (As'ta-roth),  but  there  were  other 
major  deities  and  hundreds  of  minor  gods  and  goddesses. 
The  worship  of  these  gods  was  coarse,  brutal  and  revolting. 
Not  only  did  it  do  little  to  uplift  the  people,  but  it  fre- 
quently degraded  them.  Human  sacrifice  was  by  no 
means  unknown. 

95.  Monotheism.  —  Although  polytheism  was  the  rule, 
monotheism  was  an  exception.  In  almost  all  periods, 
especially  among  the  Egyptians  and  the  Hebrews,  there 
were  some  that  beheved  in  one  God.  One  of  the  Pharaohs 
tried  to  make  monotheism  the  state  religion  in  Egypt, 
but  the  priests  had  the  support  of  the  people,  and  he  failed. 
So  little  did  the  Hebrews  believe  in  one  God  at  the  time 
of  the  Exodus  that  they  adopted  the  worship  of  the  golden 
calf,  as  soon  as  Moses  left  them.  For  centuries  after  they 
settled  in  Palestine  the  people  ran  after  false  gods,  that  is, 
many  gods. 

It  required  a  long  and  severe  training  before  this 
"  chosen  people  "  came  to  beheve,  as  a  people,  in  one  God 


WRITING  AND   LITERATURE 


77 


who   was   an  omnipotent,   omnipresent   Spirit.     It   took   The  He- 
them  still  longer  to  learn  to  worship  Him  and  Him  alone,    brews  be- 

come  a 

But  they  learned  the  lesson  finally  and  they  learned  it   monothe- 
well,  and  they  made  to  the  world  this  one  great  contribu-  ^^^^^  people 
tion,  the  greatest  of  the  ancient  world  —  monotheism. 


_irf(>n'f  r-_Ti-tc;.  "iMiits  :gi3!Hiii(,i,5u/«w, 

y^'j;i!«TSfvn»f.'nj--'",u='c?4«>i'.=:i*«r«<rii«;ir- 

^''^iT.^'iii<j|fl«ia'i;e:i.Cvsw.:.i::'it!C'i-(i^siMmj<s«2 

.<!<7£vi'..«)Si'-i';ciI)SI«3+£"iWia<i.r'/!<!irz2  ,;.>M 

•/>iS''T««:Tir!;3'<:-riT?.sj£nitfV-.ii:ij»i' £«nis/»<dip s  rYnTjSn?* 


Writing  and  Literature 

96.  Deciphering  Ancient  Inscriptions.  —  The  Rosetta 
Stone.  —  We  make  some  rather  accurate  guesses  about  the 
history  and  life  of  ancient  peoples,  but  we  really  know  very 
little  about  them,  and  that  little  we  have  learned  rather 
recently.  Some  day,  perhaps  in  the  near  future,  we  shall 
be  able  to  read  the  inscriptions  of  the  Hittites  (§  65)  and 
the  Cretans  (§  125)  and  the  Etruscans  (§  283).  We  shall 
then  know  almost 
as  much  about 
them  as  we  do 
about  the  Egyp- 
tians and  the 
B  aby lonians , 
whose  writings  we 
can  read. 

When  George 
Washington  died 
a  little  more  than 
one  hundred  years 
ago,  no  modern 
man  had  read  any 
ancient  oriental 
inscription.  In 
fact,  except  in 
Eg3^pt,  modern  men 
ancient  inscriptions. 
ton's  death,  in  1802, 


The  "  Rosetta  Stone. 


did  not  know  that  there  were  any 
It  was  three  years  after  Washing- 
that  a  block  of  black  basalt  about 


Recent 
knowledge 
of  Baby- 
lonian and 
Egyptian 
writings. 


The  Rosetta 
Stone. 


78 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


three  and  a  half  feet  high  was  brought  from  Egypt  to 
the  British  Museum.  This  block  contained  three  sets 
of  inscriptions  :  one  in  Greek,  one  of  characters,  and  one 
of  i)ictures.  As  they  repeated  the  same  story,  by  means 
of  this  Ro-set'ta  stone  it  has  been  possible  to  read  the  two 
forms  of  Egyptian  inscriptions  (§  98). 

97.  The  Behistun  Rock.  —  Nearly  a  half  century  after 
the  Rosetta  stone  had  been  read,  there  was  discovered 
high  up  on  a  cliff  in  western  Persia  a  huge  inscription  of  the 
accession  of  King  Darius  of  Persia  (§  163).  After  years 
of  work  this  was  copied  and  found  to  be  in  three  languages 
—  ancient  Persian,  Median  and  Babylonian.  Later  the 
finding  of  tablets  in  both  Babylonian  and  Assyrian,  and 
in  Assyrian  and  Sumerian  made  it  possible  for  scholars 
to  read  all  of  the  inscriptions  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates 
valley.  So  were  the  doors  to  these  ancient  literary 
treasure-houses  unlocked. 

98.  Egyptian  Writing.  —  We  can  trace  the  develop- 
ment of  Egyptian  writing  from  its  early  form  as  pictures 

through  its  later  simplification 
in  which  the  pictures  are  rep- 
resented by  symbols,  each 
•symbol  standing  for  a  word 
or  a  syllable.  Since  the  writ- 
ing was  supposed  to  be  of  di- 
vine origin  and  was  used  al- 
most exclusively  by  the  priests 
and  their  scribes,  it  was  called 
hieroglyphic,  the  Greek  word 
hieros  meaning  sacred.  The 
running  hand  was  called 
hieratic,  and  could  be  written 
rather  rapidly  by  one  accustomed  to  its  use. 

99.  Writing  Materials  and  Books.  —  The  Egyptians 
chiselled  their  pictures  or  their  characters  on  the  buildings 


.•^';^'-. 

r^ 

fZZ^ 

/^- 

%z 

9   0 

A^^v^^. 

, — , 

<::;-3. 

M 

1     ^ 

v—^ 

1^ 

f^ 

^^ 

/WV^U 

m 

//2q 

0 

/WV./V 

;j 

Q 

/vwvA 

D 

•WN/V\ 


M 


</) 


^1 


9  n 
I  ( I 


u. 


D 


Egyptian  Hieroglj'phics. 


WRITING  AND   LITERATURE  79 

used  for  tombs,  on  the  walls  of  their  palaces  or  temples   Carved 
and   on  the  graceful  ob'e-lisques  which  we   speak  of   as   and^the^^^ 
"  needles."     They  wrote  most  of  their  books  and  accounts  use  of 
on  pa-py'rus,  from  which  we  get  our  word  paper.     The   p^p^^^*- 
papyrus  plant  grows  in  marshy  ground  and  its  fibre  can  be 
split  and  so  spliced  that  it  forms  a  tough  sheet.     It  is 
not  a  very  durable  material,  however,  and  we  have  very 
few  papyri  compared  with  the  number  that  must  have 
been  written. 

The  most  famous  of  the  Egyptian  books  is  the  Book  of  The  Book 
the  Dead,  which  furnished  a  guide  for  departed  spirits   of  the  Dead 
and    taught    others    how    to    hve    wisely.     The    ancient 
writings  of  the  Egyptians  were  jealously  guarded  by  the 
priests,  so  that  their  learning  did  not  spread  to  other 
lands. 

100.  A  Babylonian  Myth.  —  We  have  already  noticed  The  twelve 
that  the  Babylonians  had  a  great  many  stories  of  the   Qngam^elh 
creation  of  the  world,  a  prehistoric  deluge,  and  of  the  the  Baby- 
wonderful  exploits  of  their  heroes  and  deities.     The  story  HgJ.pJ!igg 
of  the  deluge  is  told  in  the  Epic  of  the  twelve  adventures 

of  Girga-mesh.  Gilgamesh  is  a  man  of  wonderful 
strength,  who,  having  aroused  the  admiration  of  the  great 
goddess  Ishtar,  spurns  her  love.  In  revenge  Ishtar  tries 
to  destroy  Gilgamesh.  She  has  created  a  ferocious 
divine  bull  that  ravages  an  entire  district.  This  Gil- 
gamesh kills.  Then  follows  the  story  of  eleven  other 
''  labors "  of  this  Babylonian  Hercules,  one  for  each 
month  of  the  year.  The  stor}^  of  Gilgamesh  is  the  basis 
for  similar  wonderful  feats  by  the  heroes  of  most  of  the 
western  nations  of  the  ancient  world. 

101.  The  International  Language.  —  Just  as  the  Baby-  The  Tel  d 
Ionian  epic  became  the  common  property  of  all  western   tabiets^and 
Asia,  so  did  the  cuneiform  script  become  an  international   their  story 
written  language.     It  is  used  even  in  Egypt  in  the  days  of   tionarrela- 
the  Egyptian  empire,  that  is,  before  the  da>s  of  Rameses  tions. 


80  THE   NEAR   EAST 

II.  We  learn  this  fact  from  a  wonderful  discovery  made 
a  little  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago.  Some  work- 
men were  searching  for  building  material  at  Tel  el 
A-mar'na,  about  200  miles  south  of  Memphis  in  Egypt. 
Discovering  some  ta])lcts  with  inscriptions,  they  took  them 
to  Cairo  for  sale.  The  tablets  were  of  clay,  flat  and  about 
the  size  of  a  small  book,  or  in  the  form  of  cylinders,  with 
wedge-shaped  (cuneiform)  characters.  Here  surel}^  was 
a  fraud.  Cuneiform  writing  in  middle  Egypt  !  It  was 
impossible,  said  the  scholars.  But  the  more  they  investi- 
gated, the  more  wonderful  did  the  "  fraud"  appear. 
Here  was  a  perfect  treasure  house  of  letters  written  by  or 
to  an  Egyptian  king ;  from  Palestine,  asking  for  troops 
to  help  against  enemies ;  from  the  Hittites,  with  negotia- 
tions for  a  royal  marriage  ;  correspondence  with  the  people 
of  the  far  off  Euphrates  valley.  Most  of  what  we  know 
about  that  century  in  Egypt  and  in  Asia,  we  have  learned 
from  the  Tel  el  Amarna  tablets.  And  perhaps  the  most 
wonderful  fact  of  all  is  the  fact  that  one  language  and 
one  script,  the  cuneiform,  were  used  throughout  most 
of  the  civilized  world  of  that  day,  very  much  as  French 
was  used  as  an  international  language  for  several  cen- 
turies. 
Collection  102.  The    Library    of  Asshurbanipal.  —  In  the  city  of 

of  clay  Nineveh  workers  have  found  a  collection  of  clay  books 

tablets  and  i         rr^  i       i      * 

cylinders        even   more   valuable   than   the   Tel   el   Amarna   tablets. 

in  Xineveh.  Several  kings  had  royal  libraries,  but  the  last  important 
Assyrian  king,  As-shur-ban'i-pal,  who  lived  in  the  seventh 
century  b.c,  made  an  unusually  fine  collection.  More 
than  thirty  thousand  books  have  been  found  in  this  library. 
Some  were  very  old,  and  had  been  gathered  from  hundreds 
of  places.  Many  were  ''  new,"  having  been  written  at  the 
order  of  the  king.  They  were  well  arranged,  classified  and 
catalogued,  so  that  the  readers  could  find  what  they 
wanted.     They  were  covered  with  cuneiform  characters 


WRITING  AND   LITERATURE 


81 


impressed  upon  the  damp  clay  with  a  pointed  stylus  or 
stick.  The  clay  was  then  baked.  For  fear  that  some  one 
might  alter  the  writing,  especially  when  the  book  recorded 
a  contract  to  buy  anything  or  to  pay  a  sum  of  money  in 
the  future,  many  of  the  books  had  two  coats,  an  outer  and 
an  inner.  When  the  inner  coat  had  been  baked,  the  book 
was  covered  with  another  coat  of  clay  and  a  duplicate  of 
the  enclosed  inscription  was  written  on  the  outside.  In 
case  of  doubt  or  dispute,  the  outer  coat  was  removed  and 
the  original  writing  was  examined.  Of  course  no  change 
could  have  been  made  in  that.  Sometimes  additional 
facts  were  added  on  the  outer  coat.  Some  of  the  books 
were  written,  not  in  the  old  cuneiform  characters,  but  in 
a  new  form,  in  letters. 

103.  The  Alphabet.  —  Some  four  or  five  centuries 
before  Asshurbanipal  made  this  collection  of  books,  some 
person  or  people  whom  we  do  not  know  began  to  use 
written  characters  for  separate  sounds  instead  of  for  syl 
lables  and  words.  Instead  of  the  hundreds  or  thousands 
of  characters  that  the  Egyptians  and  the  Babylonians 
used,  they  used  twenty-two,  w^hich  we  call  letters.  Who- 
ever may  have  invented  these  letters,  which  we  call 
collectively  the  alphabet,  their  use  was  adopted  by  the 
Phoenicians,  and  the  Phoenicians  carried  the  alphabet 
with  their  commerce  over  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley 
and  the  whole  Mediterranean  world.  Until  recent  years 
it  was  thought  that  the  alphabet  was  the  creation  of  the 
Phoenicians,  but  there  can  now  be  little  doubt  that  they 
borrowed  it,  as  they  did  all  of  their  other  ideas,  from  some 
other  people. 

104.  Possible  Origin  of  the  Alphabet.  —  It  is  interesting 
to  notice  in  this  connection  that  there  have  been  found 
in  Crete  "  marks  on  masonry,  pottery,  the  reverse  side 
of  ivory,  bone  and  porcelain  inlays.  These  last  are  of 
the  same  character  as  the  Egyptian  trade  signary,  and, 

G 


The  work 
of  the 
PhcEni- 
cians. 


Possible 

origin 

in  ancient 

trade 

symbols. 


82 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


although  of  pictorial  origin,  thoy  were  early  reduced  to 
a  single  script,  and  appear  to  have  been  alphabetic.  Of 
twenty-one  varieties  on  the  backs  of  inlays  which  were 
found  at  Knos'sos  (in  Crete)  ten  marks  are  practically 


■  ;/((/  L  '/Kit  ncoud 


Irrigation  on  the  Euphrates. 


identical  with  forms  of  the  later  Greek  alphabet."  ^     It 
would  certainly  be  one  of  the  ironies  of  fate,  if  we  should 

'  Hawes,  Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece.  This  idea  of  tlie  trade-mark 
origin  of  the  alphabet  is  endorsed  by  such  able  archeologists  as  Flinders 
Petrie  and  Arthur  J.  Evans. 


TRADE   AND   INDUSTRY 


83 


find  that  our  alphabet  was  developed  from  the  ''  trade- 
marks "  and  symbols  used  in  commerce  by  the  sea-faring 
Cretans,  whose  language  we  have,  as  yet,  been  unable  to 
decipher. 

Trade  and  Industry 

105.  Agriculture   in   the   Ancient  Orient.  —  All  paleo-  Importance 
lit  hie  men  were  hunters.     Most  neolithic  men  also  were  *^^  agnciU- 

t/XiFG  in 

hunters.     But  the  men  who  developed  the  civilization  of  Egypt  and 

Babylonia. 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood 
Egyptian  Water-sweep. 


the  historic  period  were  devoted  to  agriculture,  industry 
and  commerce.  Especially  in  the  valleys  of  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Nile  was  agriculture  important,  for  the  soil  gave 
wonderful  returns  when  properly  drained  and  irrigated. 


84 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


Importance 
of  irrisa- 
tion  ditches. 
The  water- 
sweep. 


Irrigation 
dam  in 
Egypt. 


Extent  of 
the  arts. 


Use  of 
metal  tools, 
first  copper, 
then  bronze, 
last    iron. 


Wheat,  ])arley  and  millot  woro  among  the  common  grains, 
while  onions  antl  lentils  furnished  vegetable  food. 

106.  Use  of  Irrigation  in  Ancient  Times.  —  As  there 
was  httle  rain  in  either  region,  the  farmers  depended 
on  the  construction  of  canals,  which  drained  the  swampy 
land  or  brought  the  waters  of  the  river  to  the  fields. 
Menes,  Hammura])i,  and  Rameses  II  were  among  the 
great  builders  of  these  "useful  ditches.  If  the  ditch  was 
too  high  for  the  water  to  flow  from  the  river  to  the  main 
canal,  the  peasant  used  a  water-sweep  to  lift  it,  just  as  the 
fellah  does  to-day  along  the  Nile.  A  clay-lined  basket 
was  attached  to  a  long  pole  which  rested  upon  a  post,  with 
a  heavy  clay  weight  at  the  other  end.  The  basket  was 
lowered  into  the  river  and  then  raised  to  the  level  of  the 
ditch,  into  which  the  water  that  had  not  been  spilled  was 
then  emptied. 

One  of  the  greatest  of  the  irrigation  undertakings  in 
Egypt  was  the  construction  of  a  wall  twenty-seven  miles 
long  which  kept  the  waters  of  the  Nile  from  pouring  into 
Lake  Moe'ris  (the  Fay'um),  except  the  quantity  needed  for 
irrigation.  This  valley  and  that  of  the  main  stream  were 
so  fertile  that  in  Caesar's  time  a  great  deal  of  the  grain 
used  in  Rome  came  from  Egypt. 

107.  The  Arts.  The  Use  of  Tools.  —  While  some 
people  were  raising  food,  others  were  cutting  out  stones 
for  building,  making  bricks,  carving  statues  for  temples 
or  stone  vessels  for  palace  halls,  making  pottery,  weaving 
fine  cloth  or  manufacturing  any  of  the  hundreds  of  dif- 
ferent articles  that  the  poor  or  rich  used,  or  that  were 
exported  in  exchange  for  the  grains,  oil  or  pottery  that 
the  people  did  not  raise  or  make  for  themselves. 

Stone  cutting  and  carving  was  one  of  the  greatest  of 
the  arts.  The  massive  structures  of  the  Pharaohs  and 
the  smaller  palaces  of  the  Cretan  kings  would  have  been 
almost  impossible  but  for  metal  tools.     Copper  was  known 


TRADE   AND   INDUSTRY 


85 


from  a  date  long  before  the  dawn  of  history,  but  copper 
tools  were  not  used  until  almost  the  time  of  Menes,  when 
copper  was  obtained  from  the  ore  and  hardened.  Later, 
some  one,  perhaps  in  Europe,  discovered  that  if  a  Uttle 
tin  were  added  to  copper  a  hard  alloy  would  be  made. 
This  alloy  of  copper  and  tin  is  called  bronze.  A  new  age 
in  the  arts  as  well  as  a  new  period  in  the  history  of  war- 
fare was  introduced  by  this  discovery,  for  bronze  tools  and 
bronze  weapons  were  superior  to  copper  instruments. 
Twenty  centuries  later,  near  the  close  of  this  period 
that  we  are  studying,  iron  weapons  and  tools  came  into 
common  use.  Iron  brought  an  even  greater  revolution 
in  warfare  and  industry  than  bronze  had  caused. 

108.  Woodworking  and  other  Industrial  Arts.  —  Wood- 
working was  an  important  art,  and  it  was  developed  in 
the  making  of  chairs,  couches,  chests,  doors,  buildings 
and  ships.  The  Babylonians  imported  a  great  deal  of 
their  wood  from  Lebanon,  and  the  Hebrews  sent  to  Leb- 
anon for  cedar  and  to  Tyre  for  carpenters.  A  car- 
penter's kit,  found  in  Crete,  shows  the  tools  used  by  a 
Cretan  builder.  "  He  used  saws  long  and  short,  heavy 
chisels  for  stone  and  light  for  wood,  awls,  nails,  files  and 
axes  much  battered  by  use,  and  what  is  more  important 
to  note,  they  resembled  in  shape  the  tools  of  to-day  so 
closely  that  they  furnish  one  of  the  strongest  Hnks  between 
the  first  great  civilization  of  Europe  and  our  own." 

Fine  cloth,  dyed  perhaps  by  the  Tyrian  experts  with  that 
beautiful  purple  which  we  call  royal  purple,  necklaces 
and  amulets,  vases  of  stone  and  choice  pottery,  glassware, 
carved  bone  or  ivory  are  a  few  of  the  other  art  products 
that  we  have  time  only  to  mention  in  passing. 

109.  Trade  in  a  City  Market.  —  Each  city  had  many 
local  markets  where  goods  were  exchanged,  for  money  was 
not  in  use.  "  The  customers  stroll  past  and  leisurely 
examine  the  quality  of  the  commodities  offered  for  sale ; 


Wood- 
working 
and  car- 
penter's 
tools. 


Other  fine 
and  in- 
dustrial 
arts. 


Maspero's 
description 
of  an 
Eg>'ptian 
market. 


86 


THE  NEAR  EAST 


TRADE   AND   INDUSTRY  87 

each  carries  something  of  his  own  manufacture  in  his 
hand  —  a  new  tool,  some  shoes,  a  mat,  or  a  small  box 
full  of  rings  of  copper,  silver,  even  of  gold,  of  the  weight 
of  an  outnou,  which  he  proposes  to  barter  for  the  objects 
he  requires.  Two  customers  stop  at  the  same  moment 
in  front  of  a  fellah,  who  exhibits  onions  and  wheat  in  a 
basket.  Instead  of  money,  the  first  holds  two  necklets 
of  glass  or  of  many-coloured  earthenware,  the  second  a 
round  fan  with  a  wooden  handle,  and  one  of  these  trian- 
gular ventilators  which  the  cooks  used  to  quicken  the 
fire.  '  Here  is  a  beautiful  necklet  which  will  please  you, 
this  is  what  you  want,'  cries  the  former ;  whilst  the  latter 
urges,  '  Here  is  a  fan  and  a  ventilator.'  However,  the 
fellah,  quite  unmoved  by  this  double  attack,  methodically 
proceeds  to  first  seize  a  string  of  the  beads  for  closer 
examination.  '  Let  me  see  it,  that  I  may  fix  a  price.' 
The  one  asks  too  much,  the  other  too  little ;  from  con- 
cession to  concession  they  finally  come  to  terms,  and  settle 
the  number  of  onions  or  the  weight  of  corn  which  the 
necklet  or  fan  may  be  worth." 

110.  Foreign  Trade.  —  Considerable  trading  was  done  How  the 
by  the   Cretans   and  later  by  the   Phoenicians  and  the  ^^^\^l 
Greeks  with  the  natives  on  shores  far  distant  from  the  Phoenicians 
eastern  Mediterranean.     When  a  vessel  reached  a  port,   ^^^^^^^^^3.^^*^ 
the  sailor-traders  '^  disembark  and  display  on  the  ground, 
or  upon  rapidly  erected  stalls,  the  produce  which  they 
know  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  consider  valuable; 
sometimes  jewels,  bracelets,  collars,  amulets  of  glass  or 
enamelled  stone,  of  gold  or  silver;    sometimes  weapons, 
axes,  swords  damascened  and  chased ;    sometimes  vases, 
or  stuffs  dyed  purple  or  embroidered  in  brilliant  colors. 
Most  of  these  objects  are  of  Egyptian  manufacture,  or 
fabricated  in  Phoenicia  from  Egyptian  models  more  or  less 
modified  by  the  influence  of  the  Chaldean  types." 

Like  these  individuals  and  tribes,  the  nations  wanted 


88 


THE   NEAR  EAST 


Demand 
for  foreign- 
made  goods. 


Transpor- 
tation by 
caravan 
or  by 
river. 


articles  that  they  could  not  produce  for  themselves.  The 
Pharaoh  in  Egypt  desired  the  beautiful  lapis  lazuli  of 
Asia,  the  ivory  of  the  upper  Nile,  and  the  spices  from  the 
shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Assyrian  lady  must  have 
a  chest  of  cedar  from  Lebanon  for  her  clothes,  ostrich- 
plume  fans  and  necklaces  from  the  Nile. 

111.  Transportation  of  Goods  in  the  Ancient  Orient.  — 
Different  methods  were  used  to  carry  these  goods  from 
the  person  who  made  them  to  the  buyer.     Caravans  of 


An  Egyptian  Ship. 


Carry-ing 
of  goods 
by  sea. 


camels  wandered  up  and  down  the  Nile  above  the  first 
cataract  or  across  Syria,  north  of  the  Arabian  desert. 
Tiny  boats  plied  along  the  Nile  or  the  Euphrates,  using 
sails  or  oars,  but  usually  propelled  by  poles.  Slow-mov- 
ing oxcarts,  with  two  or  four  wheels,  trundled  over  the  un- 
even paths,  meeting  messengers  on  horseback  or  drawing 
to  one  side  that  a  noble  in  a  chariot  with  his  retinue  of 
followers  might  not  be. detained. 

From  the  ports  of  the  Delta  and  from  the  Phoenician 
coast  there  sailed  small  vessels  with  high  poops  and  per- 
haps as  many  as  fifteen  rowers  on  a  side.  The  Cretans 
and  the  Phoenicians  dared  to  sail  at  night,  and  fearlessly 
crossed  between  islands  with  no  land  in  sight,  but  the 


TRADE   AND   INDUSTRY  89 

Egyptians  usually  clung  to  the  shore.  In  the  days  of  one 
of  the  last  Pharaohs,  an  expedition  sailed  to  the  west, 
past  the  Gates  of  Hercules  (Gibraltar)  and  then  south  to 
the  ends  of  the  earth.  Three  years  later  these  daring 
sailors  came  up  on  the  east  coast  of  Egypt.  Herodotus, 
who  tells  us  the  story,  says  that  it  cannot  be  true,  because, 
when  they  were  sailing  east,  on  the  south  side  of  Africa, 
the  sun  was  on  their  left  hand.  On  the  contrary,  this 
observation  proves  to  us  that  these  sailors  did  circum- 
navigate Africa. 

112.  Important  Trade  Routes.  —  A  glance  at  the  map   Land  and 
shows    what    the    trade    routes    must    have   been.     One   ^^^^^  . 

rou-tjGs  in 

followed  the  Euphrates,  thence  by  caravan  trail  to  Damas-   the  East 

cus,  Tyre  or  Sidon,  or  through  Jerusalem  and  across  Suez   fj?^  *^^ 

.  .  West. 

to  Memphis ;    another  followed  the  Nile  and  a  caravan 

trail  to  the  Red  Sea.  Canals  were  constructed  from 
the  Delta  to  the  Red  Sea  and  across  the  isthmus  of 
Suez,  thus  anticipating  our  present  Suez  ship  canal 
by  more  than  twenty  centuries.  The  ^Egean  basin 
and  the  Black  Sea  furnished  a  fine  market  for 
Cretan  and  later  for  Phoenician  and  Greek  traders. 
Even  more  profit  was  made  in  trading  with  the  distant 
western  colonies  of  Phoenicia  and  Greece  or  their  bar- 
barian neighbors.  Spain,  with  its  rich  silver  mines  and 
abundant  products,  was  worth  visiting  often,  and  Britain 
must  be  reached  across  Gaul  if  not  by  sea,  if  only  for  the 
tin  which  was  needed  for  bronze.  The  use  of  these  impor- 
tant highways,  the  exchange  of  products  and  the  inter- 
change of  ideas  helped  to  raise  the  standard  of  civilization 
throughout  the  ancient  world. 

Progress  of  Twenty-five  Centuries 

113.  General  Progress.  — ■  We  have  now  come  more  than 
half  way  from  the  dawn  of  history  to  the  present  time. 


90 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


Progress 
in  culture, 
literature, 
art  and 
the  use  of 
metals. 


Consoli- 
dation in 
eastern 
empires. 


Prepara- 
tion for 
Greek 
democracy. 


Let  US  consider  a  few  of  the  great  changes  that  mankind 
has  made.  In  3000  b.c.  only  one  people,  the  Egyptians, 
had  emerged  from  the  mists  of  prehistoric  barbarism,  al- 
though the  Sumerians  had  a  fair  civilization  in  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  valley.  In  twenty-five  centuries  both  of  these 
civilizations  had  developed  wonderfully  and  had  spread 
over  the  ancient  world  from  Persia  to  Italy.  Where  there 
once  had  been  two  elementary  systems  of  picture  writing, 
there  came  to  be  an  alphabetic  language  for  every  people, 
and  extensive  literatures  from  Greece  eastward.  The 
crude  pottery  and  drawings  of  the  early  Egyptian  dynas- 
ties had  given  place  to  fine  ware.  Grecian  architecture  and 
sculpture  already  began  to  give  promise  of  that  perfection 
that  it  reached  only  a  century  later.  In  3000  b.c.  copper 
was  just  coming  into  use  among  the  most  civilized  people, 
but  within  a  few  centuries  bronze  had  replaced  copper, 
because  of  its  greater  efficiency,  and  after  1200  b.c.  bronze 
was  replaced  by  the  still  more  efficient  iron  tools  and 
weapons. 

114.  Political  Progress.  —  Social,  economic  and  politi- 
cal progress  had  been  great  in  these  twenty-five  cen- 
turies. In  3000  B.C.  the  Egj'ptians  were  the  only  people 
who  Were  living  under  a  real  government.  All  of  the  other 
governments  were  simply  local  governments,  and  these 
were  not  numerous.  Soon  after  3000  B.C.,  however,  an 
extensive  area  was  brought  under  one  government  by 
Sargon  of  Agade  and  later  by  Hammurabi.  These  early 
Babylonian  empires  and  that  of  the  Egyptians  and  the 
Hittites  were  loosely  organized  affairs,  and  it  was  not  until 
the  time  of  the  Assyrians  that  the  empires  of  the  East 
were  really  consolidated  under  a  single  government. 

More  important  from  the  political  point  of  view  than 
the  consolidation  of  vast  areas  under  a  despotic  oriental 
ruler  was  the  progress  which  had  already  been  made  in  the 
Greek   cities   in   central    Greece   and   in   southern   Italy 


PROGRESS   OF   TWENTY-FIVE   CENTURIES      91 

toward  allowing  the  people  to  rule  these  tiny  city-states. 
Greek  democracy  did  not  develop  until  after  the  period 
that  we  are  studying.  Even  then  the  people  did  not  rule 
the  city  as  the  American  people  rule  the  United  States. 

115.  Economic  Progress. — There  was  some  develop-  Diversifi- 
ment  of  trade  and  domestic  industry  in  3000  B.C.,  each   cation  of 

.  .  .  occupa- 

man  m  Egypt  and  Babylonia  havmg  his  own  occupation,   tions.    Use 
By  550  B.C.  this  division  of  occupations  was  to  be  found  of  money 
everywhere  among  civilized  people.     Markets  had  been  opment  of 
established,  and  great  fleets  carried  goods  from  country  trade, 
to  country,  as  we  have  just  seen  in  the  preceding  para- 
graphs.    Early  trade  had  been  entirely  in  the  form  of 
barter ;   but,  during  the  seventh   century  before   Christ 
the  country  of  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor  began  to  use  disks 
of  precious  metals  that  we  call  coins.     By  550  B.C.  money 
was  in  fairly  general  use  throughout  the  countries  of  the 
eastern  Mediterranean.     With  the  development  of  great 
empires  and  more  extensive  businesses  slavery  became 
more  profitable,  and  was  more  extensive  than  it  had  been 
twenty-five    centuries    earlier.     Although    business    had 
developed  wonderfully,  it  would  be  difficult  to  say  whether 
the  workers  were  better  off  in  550  B.C.  than  they  were 
2500  years  earlier. 

116.  Social  Progress.  —  In  3000  B.C.  there  were  only  Organiza- 
a  few  small  organized  societies  on  the  surface  of  the  globe.   *^^^  °^ 

^  ^  .       '^  .  large  so- 

Twenty-five  centuries  later  people  were  organized  into  cieties. 
great  groups  called  nations  or  countries.  It  would  be 
impossible  for  this  great  change  to  take  place  without 
arranging  people  in  classes,  giving  to  some  high  posi- 
tions and  many  privileges,  and  assigning  to  the  rest 
places  of  inferiority.  Yet  the  very  organization  of  society 
was  a  necessary  and  important  upward  step  in  social  prog- 
ress. Moreover,  great  social  progress  had  been  made 
because  man  had  become  civilized. 

The  skeletons  of  the  women  of  prehistoric  times  show 


92 


THE   NEAR   EAST 


LosscninK 
of  penal- 
ties for 
offences. 


that  tlu'ir  forearms  wore  often  broken,  as  though  they  had 
been  obhged  to  defend  themselves  against  their  brutal 
lords  and  masters.  The  extent  of  the  social  progress 
cannot  be  described  easily,  but  it  is  indicated,  for  example, 
by  a  comparison  of  three  codes  of  laws  which  are  directly 
connected,  the  Sumerian  laws  of  about  2800  B.C.,  the 
Hammurabi  code  of  about  1900  B.C.  and  the  Mosaic  code 
of  about  1200  b.c.  Although  in  many  respects  the  laws 
are  the  same  in  these  three  codes,  we  find  that  the  later 
codes  show  a  greater  respect  for  human  life,  and  provide 
lighter  penalties  for  ordinary  offences.  In  his  treatment 
of  his  fellows,  man  is  becoming  more  humane. 


General  References 

Botsford,  A  Source  Book  of  Ancient  History,  5-54. 

Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient  History,  1-44. 

Sayce,  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East,  58-89,  145-178,  194-209, 
221-233. 

Breasted,  A  History  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  esp.  chapters 
IV,  V,  IX,  XIII,  XVIII. 

Tarbell,  A  History  of  Greek  Art,  15-76. 

Maspero,  Art  in  Egypt. 

Petrie,  The  Arts  and  Crafts  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

Maspero,  Manual  of  Egyptian  Archeology. 

Sayce,   Social  Life  among  the   Assyrians  and  Babylonians. 

Sayce,  Assyria,  Its  Princes,  Priests  and  People. 

Winckler,  History  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,   127-164. 

Maspero,  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria. 

Macalister,   A   History  of  Civilization  in   Palestine. 

Hawes,  Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  22-45,  114-154. 


Topics 

Egyptian  Religion  in  the  Old  Kingdom  :  Breasted,  History 
of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  55-73  ;  Baikie,  Story  of  the  Pharaohs, 
329-345;    Moore,  History  of  Religions,  I,   144-166. 

Egyptian  Sculpture:  Tarbell,  History  of  Greek  Art,  20-24, 
30-35;  Petrie,  Arts  and  Crafts  in  Ancient  Egypt,  29-47;  Mas- 
pero,  Manual  of  Egyptian  Archeology,  231-273. 


PROGRESS  OF  TWENTY-FIVE   CENTURIES      93 

Studies 

1.  The  house  and  gardens  of  an  Egyptian  noble.     Maspero, 
Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria,  93-101. 

2.  Worship  of  an  Egyptian  deity.     Maspero,  Ancient  Egypt 
and  Assyria,  62-72. 

3.  How  the   people  lived   in    the    Tigris-Euphrates    valley. 
Sayce,  Social  Life,  18-29. 

4.  The  home  of  the  Egyptian  peasant.     Maspero,  Ancient 
Egypt  and  Assyria,  2-6. 

5.  Women  of  the  ancient  East.     Reich,  Woman  through  the 
Ages,  1-15,  21-34. 

6.  The  light-hearted  Egyptians.    Weigall,  Treasury  of  Ancient 
Egypt,  81-90. 

7.  Slavery  in  the  ancient  world.     Sayce,  Social  Life,  75-85. 

8.  Egyptian   precepts.     Botsford.    Source    Book    of    Ancient 
History,  115-20. 

9.  The  Chaldean  story  of  the  flood.     Botsford,  Source  Book  of 
Ancient  History,  33-38. 

10.  Cretan  religion.     Hawes,  Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece, 
139-143. 

11.  The    story    of    the    Behistun    rock.     Rogers,    History    of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria,  I,  177  et  seq. 

12.  The  training  of  an  Egyptian  scribe.     Maspero,  Ancient 
Egypt  and  Assyria,  8-11. 

13.  An  Assyrian  library.     Maspero,   Ancient  Egypt  and  As^ 
Syria,  287-302. 

14.  Cretan  Letters.     Baikie,  Sea  Kings  of  Crete,  232-243. 

15.  Metal  working  among  the  Egyptians.     Petrie,  Arts  and 
Crafts  of  Ancie7it  Egypt,  98-106. 

16.  Architecture  under  the  Egyptian  empire.     Tarbell,  His- 
tory of  Greek  Art,  25-30. 

17.  Mycenean  Art.     Tsountas   and   Manatt,    The   Mycenean 
Age,  217-255. 

18.  An  ancient  strike.     Maspero,  Ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria, 
32-36. 

19.  Commerce  in  the  Ancient  Orient.     Cunningham,  Western 
Civilization,  I,  62-70. 

Questions 

1.  Name  the  important  social  classes  of  the  ancient  world. 
What  were  the  special  privileges  of  each  class  ? 


94  THE  NEAR  EAST 

2.  Who  owned  the  land  in  very  ancient  times  ?  How  was  it 
irrigated  ?  how  cultivated  ?  Were  the  peasants  on  the  estates 
as  well  off  as  the  day-laborers  of  the  cities  ? 

3.  How  was  the  ancient  laborer  dressed  ?  What  did  he  eat  ? 
How  was  he  better  off  than  the  modern  laborer?  How  was  he 
worse  off  ? 

4.  Were  slaves  numerous  ?  How  were  they  treated  ?  Why 
were  women  cheaper  than  men  as  slaves  ? 

5.  Compare  the  lot  of  woman  in  ancient  Egypt,  in  Babylonia, 
in  England  to-day  and  in  this  country  to-day. 

6.  Was  religion  more  important  to  primitive  man  than  it  is  to 
modern  man?  What  was  the  nature  of  the  religion  of  ancient 
man  in  general  ?  in  Egypt  ?  in  Palestine  ? 

7.  Tell  the  story  of  Osiris  ;  of  the  deluge  ;  of  Gilgamesh. 

8.  What  is  meant  by  these  words  or  terms  ?  potentate,  dy- 
nasty, representative,  soothsayer,  manuscripts,  drudgery,  dowry, 
separate  property  rights,  Ra,  Marduk,  Horus,  Amon,  embalm- 
ing, pyramid,  Pharaoh,  polytheism,  monotheism. 

9.  Show  the  difference  between  the  temples  of  the  Egyptians 
and  the  Babylonians ;  between  the  hierogh^phie  and  hieratic 
writing ;   between  the  hieratic  and  the  cuneiform  writing. 

10.  Show  the  importance  of  the  Rosetta  stone  ;  of  the  Tel  el 
Amarna  tablets.  What  materials  were  used  for  books  by  the 
Egyptians  ?  by  the  Assyrians  ? 

11.  What  were  the  chief  steps  in  the  development  of  the 
alphabet  ?  Why  is  it  easier  to  have  a  literature  with  an  alpha- 
bet than  with  characters  for  words  or  syllables  ? 

12.  Compare  the  use  of  stone,  copper,  bronze  and  iron  tools 
as  instruments  in  the  practical  arts ;  in  the  fine  arts.  Has  the 
progress  of  mankind  been  much  influenced  by  the  kind  of  tools 
men  have  had  ? 

13.  Compare  the  tools  (Cretan),  the  furniture,  and  other  manu- 
factured articles  of  the  ancients  with  those  of  to-day. 

14.  Name  the  chief  trade  routes  of  the  ancient  near  East. 
What  products  were  used  in  trade?  Why  was  international 
trade  possible  before  money  was  invented? 

15.  Make  a  summary  of  the  social  progress  from  Menes  to 
the  Persian  wars ;  of  the  industrial  progress ;  of  the  political 
progress. 

16.  Tell  the  chief  contributions  to  civilization  of  each  country 
that  we  have  studied.  Were  there  any  periods  of  exceptional 
progress?     If  so,  which?     Explain  the  changes  of  the  period. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE    ^GEAN   AREA 

(to  550  B.C.) 

The  Geography  of  the  ^gean  Area 

117.  The  ^gean  Area  and  Its  Harbors.  —  The  ^gean  Irregular 
area  includes  the  lands  around  the  ^gean  Sea.     To  the  g^e^fj^^-^' 
east  is  Asia  Minor,  to  the  north  the  BaVkari  countries^  bors  and 
to  the  west  Greece  and  on  the  south  Crete.     The  ^Egean  f^g^^f^^hg 
Sea  is  surrounded  by  irregular  coasts  and  is  dotted  with  ^gean 
thousands  of  islands.     It  is  almost  a  salt  water  lake,  an  ^°^^*" 
arm  of  the  Mediterranean,  flooding  a  mountain  country 

whose  peaks  and  headlands  and  knolls  stand  up  above 
the  surface  of  the  water,  giving  the  ^Egean  Sea  a  very 
large  number  of  islands  and  the  most  irregular  and  the 
longest  coast  line  of  any  sea  of  equal  size  on  the  surface 
of  the  globe.  Everywhere  we  find  an  abundance  of 
harbors,  attractive  hill  slopes,  occasional  mountain  peaks 
and  narrow  coastal  plains  or  valleys. 

With  its  clear  skies  and  warm  dry  summers  this  is  an  Importance 
attractive  corner  of  the  world,  but  one  in  which  the  making  ?^  J{j^  ^^^ 
of  a  living  on  land  is  a  difficult  task.     Everywhere  the  land  ^gean 
lies  open  to  the  sea,  and  the  sea  calls.     Even  in  early  ^^^^' 
days  it  was  easy  to  go  from  mainland  to  island  and  from 
island   to   the   other   mainland.     Among   the   people   of 
ancient  times  the  inhabitants  of  the  ^gean  area  were  the 
first  to  build  ships  and  carry  products  by  sea. 

118.  The  Three  Geographical  Divisions  of  Greece. —  The  three 
The  most  important  country  bordering  on  the  ^Egean  is  pg^opon!' 
Greece.     The  peninsula  of  Greece  is  divided  into  three  parts,   nesus, 

95 


96 


GREECR 


Central 
Greece. 


Northern 
Greece 
and  Mace- 
donia. 


Peninsulas, 
slopes  and 
basins  of 
Greece. 


Local 
spirit  and 
lack  of 
national 
patriotism 
in  Greece. 


The  southern  third  is  almost  an  island,  being  connected 
with  central  Greece  by  the  very  narrow  isthmus  of  ('orinth. 
This  square  mountainous  peninsula  is  called  Pel-o-pon- 
7ie'siis,  and  includes  Spar'ta  near  the  southern  end,  and, 
in  the  west,  0-lym'pi-a,  where  the  .famous  Greek  games 
were  held  every  four  years. 

Central  Greece  is  long  and  narrow,  stretching  from  west 
to  east.  Almost  in  the  centre  of  Greece  is  Del' phi,  sacred 
to  Apollo,  god  of  th(»  sun.  Farther  east  and  almost  north 
of  Corinth  is  the  Boe-o'tian  plain  with  Thebes  and  Pla- 
tae'a.  Still  farther  east  is  the  city-state  of  At'ti-ca,  on  the 
southern  slope  of  which  lies  the  Greek  city,  Athens. 

Northern  Greece  is  separated  from  central  Greece  by 
mountains.  Along  the  eastern  coast  there  is  one  narrow 
pass  that  joins  northern  and  central  Greece,  called  Thcr- 
mop'y-loB  (hot  gates).  Historically,  northern  Greece  is 
not  important,  ])ut  if  we  go  a  little  farther  north,  out- 
side of  Greece  proper,  we  come  to  a  mountainous  slope 
called  Mac'e-don,  which  was  the  home  of  Alexander  the 
Great. 

119.  Influence  of  the  Geography  of  Greece  on  Local 
Development.  —  This  Greek  peninsula  is  made  up  of 
mountain  ridges,  not  ranges,  running  in  different  direc- 
tions. These  ridges  form  numerous  peninsulas,  separated 
by  deep  gulfs,  with  numerous  harbors.  Along  these 
shores  there  are  a  few  rather  steep  slopes,  and  inland  there 
are  a  few  short  river  valleys  and  small  basins  surrounded 
by  hills.  The  southern  slope  of  Attica,  on  which  Athens  is 
located,  gives  us  a  good  example  of  a  slope,  and  the  moun- 
tain-enclosed plain  of  Sparta  (in  Peloponnesus)  and  of 
Bceotia  in  central  Greece  are  good  examples  of  the  basins. 

Since  Greece  was  almost  surrounded  by  water,  she 
was  isolated  from  her  neighbors.  The  little  slopes  and 
basins  were  almost  as  much  isolated  from  each  other 
because  of  the  hills  and  mountains  that  came  between 


THE   GEOGRAPHY  OP  THE  ^GEAN   AREA      97 

them.  Greece  was  divided,  therefore,  into  a  large  number 
of  local  districts,  each  of  which  developed  by  itself. 
Consequently  local  patriotism  was  strong  and  national 
patriotism  was  almost  lacking  in  Greece.  Like  most 
other  peoples  who  live  in  a  hilly  country,  the  Greeks  were 
intensely  independent,  the  combination  of  independence 
and  local  patriotism  being  the  most  important  political 
characteristic  of  the  Greeks. 

120.  The  City-states  of  Greece.  —  Because  the  basins   The  geo- 
and  slopes  of  Greece  were  separated,   each  community  graphical 
looked  after  its  own  affairs,  and  there  was  no  general  or  ical  units 
national   government.     These   little   groups   were   called   °^  Greece, 
city-states  like  the  city-states  of  Babylonia  and  Phoenicia. 

There  were  about  twenty  districts  in  Greece,  each  of  which 
contained  one  or  more  city-states.  The  most  important 
city-states  were  Athens,  really  the  only  city-state  in  the 
district  called  Attica,  and  Sparta,  the  only  important  city- 
state  in  the  district  known  as  Laconia.  Other  important 
city-states  were  Thebes  in  Boeotia  and  Corinth  in  Corinthia. 

121.  Influence  of  the   Geography  on  Occupations  and   The  poor 
Life  of  the  Greeks.  —  As  the  rains  easily  wash  off  from   ^^^  nieant 

poor  crops, 

hillsides  the  soil  which  might  originally  have  been  there,   but  fruit 
and  most  of  Greece  is  hilly,  the  soil  was  neither  abun-  was  grown 

"^  '  on  the 

dant  nor  fertile.  Because  Greece  had  little  level  land,  it  hillsides. 
had  no  large  grain  fields  like  those  of  Egypt  and  Baby- 
lonia. Its  crops  were  poor  and  the  farmer  earned  every 
bushel  of  wheat  and  every  basket  of  vegetables  that  he 
grew.  The  gently  sloping  hillsides  were  good,  however, 
for  olive  orchards  and  vineyards,  which  were  found  every- 
where in  Greece.  Because  of  the  geography  of  Greece, 
the  supply  of  food  was  always  a  serious  problem  to  her 
people. 

Greece  has  a  rather  unusual  climate.  The  summers  are 
hot  and  rain  seldom  falls  except  during  the  winter  months. 
The  winters  are  usually  cool  and  frequently  very  cold. 

H 


98 


THE   NEAR  EAST 


Hot  sum- 
mers and 
cold  win- 
ters made 
the  Greeks 
hardy. 


In  summer  the  Greek  was  able  to  live  out  of  doors  v.ith 
considerable  comfort  and  he  wore  comparatively  little 
clothing.  In  winter  he  still  lived  out  of  doors,  for  his 
house  was  unheated,  but  he  could  not  be  said  to  be  very 
comfortable,  since  he  did  not  wear  warm  clothing.  This 
life  made  the  Greeks  hardy. 


From  the 
Cretan 
period  to 
the  Persian 
Wars. 


Crete  was 
the  step- 
ping stone 
from  Egypt 
to  Greece. 


The  Golden 
Age  of 
Crete. 

Probable 
rule  of  the 
Cretans 
over  the 
whole 
iEgean 
area  after 
1500  B.C. 


Early  ^Egean  Civilizations 

122.  Succession  of  Early  Civilizations  in  the  ^gean 
Area.  —  There  were  several  civilizations  which  in  succes- 
sion occupied  the  .'Egean  area.  The  earliest  of  these  was 
the  Cre'tan  civilization ;  the  next  is  called  the  My-ce- 
nce'an  civilization  ;  the  third  is  called  Ho-mer'ic  ;  and  the 
fourth  the  early  Greek  civilization.  We  shall  study  each 
of  the  first  three  briefly  under  this  topic  and  shall  examine 
the  last  more  in  detail  in  the  rest  of  the  chapter. 

123.  Early  History  of  the  Cretans.  —  The  long  narrow 
island  of  Crete  lies  across  the  south  end  of  the  ^gean 
area,  like  a  half-way  station  between  Egypt  and  Greece. 
In  the  history  of  mankind  it  was  almost  that,  for  what 
Crete  had  she  passed  on  to  Greece ;  and  Crete  owed  much 
of  her  progress  to  her  intercourse  by  sea  vv^ith  Egypt  and, 
to  a  less  extent,  with  the  east  Mediterranean  coast.  In 
fact  the  periods  of  Cretan  prosperity  seem  to  reflect  the 
periods  of  Egyptian  splendor. 

The  period  of  real  Cretan  glory  corresponds  almost 
exactly  with  the  reign  of  Thotmes  III,  showing  that  the 
Cretans  reflected  Egyptian  prosperity. 

124.  The  Cretan  ''Empire."  —  At  this  period  the 
Cretans  extended  their  power  and  influence  over  the  whole 
of  the  ^Egean  area.  They  not  only  traded  with  the  cities 
of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor  and  the  Black  Sea,  but  they 
made  most  of  these  cities  their  dependents  and  subjects. 
The  kings  at  Knossos  were  called  ]\Ii-no'an  kings,  and, 


EARLY  ^GEAN  CIVILIZATIONS 


99 


according  to  Athenian  legend,  seven  youths  and  seven 
maidens  were  each  year  sent  by  Athens  to  Crete  as  a 
sacrifice  to  the  Min'o-taur.^  Through  the  aid  of  a  Cretan 
princess,  A-ri-ad'ne,  a  courageous  Athenian  youth, 
The'se-us,  penetrated  the  palace  at  Knossos,^  the  laby- 
rinth, killed  the  Minotaur,  and  freed  the  Athenians  from 
the  oppressive  rule  of  the  Cretans.  This  story,  legend 
as  it  is,  indicates  that  Cretan  rule  did  extend  over  the 
yEgean  area  and  that  the  Cretans  probably  borrowed  from 
western  Asia  (Babylonian  sources)  some  of  the  revolting 
rehgious  customs  of  human  sacrifice  that  were  used  in 
Assyria  and  Phoenicia.  Later 
the  Cretans  not  only  lost  their 
dependencies  in  the  vEgean 
area,  but  they  were  driven  out 
of  Crete  by  invaders. 

125.  Cretan  Civilization.^  — 
The  Cretans  were  the  foremost 
navigators  and  traders  at  the 
dawn  of  history.  They  had 
two  written  languages,  which 
were  developed  first  in  the  form 
of  pictures,  and  later  in  charac- 
ters which  we  have  not  been 
able   fully  to   decipher.     They  Cretan  Vase. 


Trade, 
writing  and 
art  of  the 
Cretans. 


1  Minos-taurus  ;  taurus  meaning  bull. 

2  It  is  this  palace  to  which  Homer  refers  as  "  Broad  Knos'sos." 

•^  This  civilization  was  chiefly  of  oriental  origin,  but  it  was  essentially 
modified  by  the  Cretans,  who  were  people  of  intelligence.  It  was  scat- 
tered by  people  who  were  traders  and  pirates  like  themselves.  Knossos 
seems  to  have  been  destroyed  in  a  pirate  raid,  and,  when  later  great  bands 
of  Achaeans  came  down  into  Greece  and  later  into  Crete,  the  Cretans 
were  driven  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  earth.  "The  Isles  were  restless, 
disturbed  among  themselves  at  one  and  the  same  time"  in  the  days  of 
Rameses  III.  Some  of  the  Cretans  probably  settled  on  the  coast  of 
Palestine,  where  they  were  known  as  Philistines.  Others  went  to  Asia 
Minor  and  still  others  to  the  coast  of  Greece. 


100 


THE   NEAR  EAST 


Spread  of 
Cretan 
culture 
throughout 
the  coasts 
of  the 
iEgean  Sea 
and  west 
to  Italy. 


learned  to  make  a  fine  grade  of  pottery  and  to  work 
metals.  Some  of  their  silver  vases  and  bowls  show  great 
skill.  One  votive  offering  of  ''  very  elegant  fern-like  sprays 
of  thin  gold  plate  and  wire  "  is  a  work  of  real  art.  Their 
figures  are  unlike  the  Egj'ptian  and  the  Assyrian,  for  they 
are  full  of  life  and  action,  and  in  that  respect  remind  us 
of  the  later  Greek  statues  (§  254). 


The  Lion  Gate,  Mycenae. 

126.  The  Mycenaean  Age.  —  The  Cretans  shared  this 
civilization  with  their  neighbors  of  the  ^gean.  As  we 
first  learned  of  this  later  ^gean  culture  from  excavations 
at  My-ce'nce,  a  city  southwest  of  Athens,  we  usually  speak 
of  it  as  Mycenaean  civilization,  and  we  refer  to  the  period 
from  the  Golden  Age  of  Crete  to  the  Trojan  War  as  the 
My-ce-noe'an  Age.  We  find  traces  of  this  Mycenaean 
culture  in  Thrace  and  in  Sicily  and  in  southern  Italy. 


THE  HOMERIC  AGE 


101 


Like  Crete,  Mycense  and  its  near  neighbor  Tiryns  have  Mycenge, 
huge  buildings  called  palaces.     At  the  entrance  to  the  My-  *^^  ^^^^ 
censean  palace  is  a  gate  with  the  figures  of  two  lions  above  the  Vapio 
the  entrance.     This  is  the  famous  lion  gate.     The  art  of  ^^^^' 
the  Mycenaean  age  is  less  perfect  than  that  of  Crete  at  its 
best,  but  it  is  nevertheless  superior  to  most  of  that  found 
in  Egypt  and   Babylonia,  because  the  figures   are   more 
natural.      The  Vap'i-o   cups,  found   south   of   Mycense, 
give  a  good  idea  of  the  skill  of  the  artists  in  representing 
action. 


The  Homeric  Age 

127.  The  Award  of  Paris.  —  One  of  the  cities  that 
was  quite  distinguished  in  the  Mycenaean  age  was  Troy, 
which  was  located  in  northwestern  Asia  Minor,  close  to 
that  strait  which  we  know  as  the  Heries-pont.  According 
to  legend  the  king  of  this  city  about  1200  b.c.  was  Pri'am. 
Priam's  son,  Paris,  was  asked  to  decide  a  question  of  beauty 
between  three  goddesses.  An  apple,  the  "  apple  of  dis- 
cord," was  to  be  awarded  the  fairest,  and  Ju'no,  queen  of 
the  goddesses,  Mi-nerVa,  goddess  of  wisdom,  and  Ve'nus, 
goddess  of  love,  were  the  three  contestants.  Paris  awarded 
the  apple  to  Venus  on  her  promise  to  give  him,  as  a  wife, 
the  most  beautiful  woman  in  the  world.  This  was  Helen, 
wife  of  the  king  of  Sparta.  Paris  visited  Sparta  as  a  guest, 
and,  in  the  absence  of  his  host,  ran  away  with  Helen. 

128.  The  Trojan  War.  —  The  Greeks  then  gathered 
their  armies,  supported  by  Juno,  Minerva  and  other 
deities.  Ag-a-mem'non  was  named  the  leader,  but 
crafty  U-lys'ses  and  brave  A-chil'les  joined  with  their 
followers.  They  sailed  away  to  Troy,  where  for  nine  years 
they  besieged  the  city.  In  the  tenth  year,  Achilles  slew 
the  chief  Trojan  champion,  Hec'tor,  but  was  himself 
treacherously  killed  by  Paris.  Achilles  had  been  dipped 
by  his  mother  in  the  river  Styx  and  was  invulnerable 


Paris  of 

Troy 

awards  the 
"apple  of 
discord"  to 
Venus,  who 
gives  him 
Helen  as 
his  wife. 


The  Greeks 
besiege 
Troy  and 
capture  it 
by  the  use 
of  Ulysses' 
wooden 
horse. 


102 


THE   NEAR  EAST 


Ulysses' 
adventures 
with  the 
Cyclops, 
Circe,  the 
sirens. 
Calypso 
and  Penel- 
ope's 
suitors. 


except  on  the  heel,  the  spot  where  his  mother  held  him. 
Ulysses  now  suggested  that  they  build  a  hollow  wooden 
horse.  This  was  done,  and  the  horse,  filled  with  sol- 
diers, was  left  outside  of  a  gate  of  Troy,  the  Greeks  pre- 
tending to  leave  Troy  altogether.  When  the  Trojans  had 
moved  the  sacred  horse  into  the  city,  the  Greek  soldiers, 
w^ho  came  out  of  the  wooden  horse,  opened  the  gates  to  their 
comrades,  and  Troy  w^as  sacked.  This  story  has  been  pre- 
served for  us  by  Ho'mer  in  the  great  epic  poem,  the  IVi-ad. 

129.  The  Wanderings  of  Ulysses.  —  The  wrath  of  the 
gods  that  had  helped  Troy  was  especially  directed  against 
Ulysses  for  his  part  in  the  capture  of  Troy.  They  drove 
him  from  place  to  place  for  ten  years  before  he  was  allowed 
to  return  home.  He  was  imprisoned  in  a  cave  by  a  huge 
giant  wath  one  eye.  This  giant  was  known  as  a  cyclops. 
Ulysses  escaped  after  blinding  the  giant.  Later  he  came 
to  the  home  of  Cir'ce,  the  enchantress,  w^ho  turned  his 
companions  into  swine,  but  released  them  and  entertained 
them  royally  for  a  year.  Then  they  passed  between 
Scyl'la  and  Cha-ryb'dis,  which  were  inhabited  by  sirens 
whose  appeal  no  man  could  hear  and  resist.  Ulysses 
filled  his  followers'  ears  with  w^ax  and  had  them  lash 
him  to  a  mast.  Not  long  afterw^ard  his  men  ate  the 
cattle  of  the  sun  (A-pol'lo).  All  of  them  were  drow^ned 
by  Ju'pi-ter,  but  Ulysses  was  cast  upon  the  island  of  a 
sea-nymph,  Ca-lyp'so.  After  eight  years  he  managed 
to  return  to  Greece,  where  he  found  his  home  filled  with 
suitors  of  his  wife,  the  faithful  Pe-nero-pe.  Penelope 
finally  agreed  to  marry  the  one  who  could  bend  Ulysses' 
bow,  but  none  could  except  Ulysses  himself,  whom 
Penelope  had  given  up  for  lost.  Homer  had  preserved 
for  us  this  story  in  a  second  great  epic  poem,  the  Od'ys-sey. 

130.  The  Wanderings  of  iEneas.  —  These  great  Greek 
epics,  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  contain  the  story  of  the 
Greeks  in  the  Heroic  Age.     When  the  Romans,  in  the 


THE   HOMERIC  AGE 


103 


days  of  the  early  empire  (§  358),  wished  to  find  for  them- 
selves an  ancestor  who  had  a  share  in  these  heroic  struggles, 
the  Roman  poet  Vir'gil  wrote  his  great  Latin  epic,  the 
^-ne'id.  The  iEneid  tells  of  the  wanderings  of  ^-ne'as 
of  Troy,  who  carried  his  aged  father  out  of  the  burning  city, 
and  with  his  son  lu'lus  ^  wandered  about  the  Mediter- 
ranean coasts  for  years.  At  Carthage,  he  was  detained  by 
Di'do,  the  founder  of  that  city.  When  ^Eneas  left  Dido, 
she  destroyed  herself  on  a  great  funeral  pyre.  iEneas 
crossed  to  Italy,  where  he  made  his  home  in  Latium. 
According  to  the  story,  one  of  his  descendants,  Rom'u-lus, 
founded  Rome  in  753  B.C.  These  three  legends  tell  us  the 
chief  story  of  the  Heroic  Age  as  represented  in  the  epic 
poems  of  the  two  classical  peoples,  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans. 

131.  Life  in  the  Homeric  Age.  —  The  Greek  people 
of  whom  Homer  tells  us  lived  about  1200  B.C.,  soon  after 
the  time  of  Rameses  II  in  Egypt.  These  A-chse'ans  do 
not  belong  to  the  same  race  as  the  Cretans  and  Myce- 
nseans,  for  their  ancestors  had  migrated  into  Greece,  prob- 
ably from  the  north.  The  leaders  were  tall,  with  light 
hair  and  fair  skins,  people  very  different  from  the  short, 
swarthy  Cretans. 

These  Achaeans,  as  Homer  calls  them,  were  governed 
by  kings,  but  each  king  called  to  his  council  the  nobles 
who  were  leaders  of  the  troops.  The  people  whom  these 
kings  governed  were  a  pastoral  and  an  agricultural  people, 
with  settled  homes.  The  houses  of  the  kings  were  very 
simple  compared  with  the  palaces  at  Knossos  or  Mycenae, 
and  the  life  of  the  people  was  simple  and  rude.  They  had 
some  orchards,  but  they  cared  chiefly  for  herds  of  cattle 
or  swine  or  for  flocks  of  sheep.  The  women  looked  after 
the  grinding  of  the  corn,  the  spinning  and  the  weaving 

^  Julius,  to  show  that  this  was  a  family  name,  from  the  beginning,  the 
reigning  emperor  being  the  nephew  and  adopted  son  of  Julius  Csesar, 


^neas  of 
Troy,  who 
visits  Dido 
and  reaches 
Latium. 


The 
Achaeans. 


Govern- 
ment, oc- 
cupations 
and  the 
simple  life. 


104  THE   NEAR  EAST 

and  the  numerous  household  duties.  There  were  some 
servants  and  a  few  slaves,  but  work  was  not  despised  except 
among  the  nobles.  Both  Homer  and  a  later  poet,  Hesiod,^ 
show  us  the  more  attractive  side  of  this  early  Greek  people, 
whose  wants  were  few  and  whose  life  consisted  in  toil  and 
simple  pleasures.  They  give  us  glimpses,  however,  of  the 
crudeness  and  the  barbarism  of  this  life,  and  the  cruelty 
of  the  leaders. 

The  Unity  of  the  Greeks 

Zeus  or  132.   Greek  Olympic  Deities.  —  The  people  whom  we 

upiter.  know  as  Greeks  were  known  in  ancient  times  not  as 
Greeks  but  as  Hellenes.  The  Hel-le'nes  in  the  Homeric 
Age  and  in  the  historic  period  had  a  large  number 
of  deities  in  their  pantheon.  They  imagined  that  the 
gods  dwelt  on  Mount  Olympus,  on  the  northern  border 
of  Greece.  Here  Jupiter  (Zeus),  the  father  of  the  gods, 
presided  over  the  sacred  council.  He  was  the  greatest 
among  the  gods,  for  he  ruled  the  heavens  and  controlled 
the  thunderbolt.  At  banquets  on  0-lym'pus,  food  was 
served  fit  for  the  gods,  ambrosia  and  nectar.  The  gods 
of  the  early  Greeks  were  after  all  men  of  heroic  stature 
and  powers,  who  loved  and  fought  and  feasted,  but  who 
were  immortal. 

Other  major  Besides  Jupiter  2  (Zeus,  the  Greek  called  him),  there 
were  many  major  deities,  Juno,  the  wife  of  Jupiter, 
Apollo,  the  god  of  light,  Minerva,  the  goddess  of  wisdom, 
who  was  said  to  have  sprung  full-armed  from  the  head  of 
Jupiter.  The  goddess  of  love  was  Venus,  whose  little 
son,  Cupid,  shot  arrows  into  the  hearts  of  susceptible 
mortals.  Mars  was  god  of  war,  Nep'tune  ruled  the  seas, 
Di-a'na  was  the  chief  huntress,  and  Mer'cii-ry  was  the  mes- 

1  Hesiod's  Work  arid  Days. 

^  It  seems  wise,  in  a  course  of  this  kind,  to  use  only  the  Latin  names  of 
the  deities,  except  in  a  few  instances. 


deities. 


THE   UNITY   OF  THE   GREEKS  105 

senger  of  the  gods.  These  deities  and  many  others 
have  been  preserved  to  us  in  that  marvellous  myth- 
ology of  the  Greeks  which  is  one  of  the  special  con- 
tributions that  they  have  made  to  the  hterary  posses- 
sions of  the  human  race.  This  mythology  should  be 
read  as  extensively  as  possible. 

133.  Unity  of  the   Greeks.  —  Among  the  Hellenes   the  Organiza- 
strongest  bond   was  that  of  blood,   or  relationship.     The  Q^ge^l*^^^ 
family  was  more   closely   united  than  it  is  even  among  because  of 
us.     All  famiUes  that  were  descended  from  a   common  ^^^^^ 
ancestor  belonged  to  the  same  clan,  and  all  clans  that  were 
supposed  to  be  related  were  united  in  a  brotherhood.     Nu- 
merous related  brotherhoods  were  supposed  to  make  up 

the  tribe.      Thus  blood  bonds  formed   the  basis   of  social 
organization,  government  and  religion. 

This  unity  of  the  Greeks  was  found  not  only  in  their  Organiza- 
blood  ties  but  in  their  organizations,  institutions  and  g^^^^^J^jo^g 
CUSTOMS.     These  held  the  Greeks  together  in  spite  of  the  and  customs 
many  influences  that  kept  them  apart.     It  was  difficult  *|)e*Qj?ge^s 
for  the  Greeks  to  unite,  for  in  the  little  city-states  there  together, 
was  an  intense  spirit  of  jealousy,  and  of  local  patriotism, 
for  no  Greek  wanted  an  outsider  (that  is,  one  outside  of 
the  city-state)   to  look  after  his  affairs.      The   chief  of 
these    organizations    which    united    all    Hellas,    that   is. 
Greater  Greece,  and  especially  Greece  proper,  were  the 
amphictyonies.     The  principal  institution  that  all  Greeks 
respected  was  the  oracle,  and  the  custom  of  holding  games 
at  regular  intervals  gave  rise  to  a  spirit  of  union  among 
the  states  that  participated  in  them. 

134.  The   Religious   Amphictyonies.  —  An   am-phic'ty-  The  am- 
o-ny  was  a  religious  confederation  of  Greek  cities.     Its  special  ^^  reUgious 
purpose  was  to  maintain  common  shrines  for  the  worship   confedera- 
of  some  national  deity,  especially  Apollo,  to  protect  these  J^^Jp^f ^nd 
shrines  and  their  oracles,  and  to  keep  peace  as  much  as  at  Delos. 
possible  among  the  members  of  the  amphictyony,  who, 


106 


THE   NEAll  EAST 


The  Del- 
phian oracle 
gave  advice 
on  every 
important 
subject  to 
all  Hellenes. 


Answers 
framed  by 
a  college 
of  priests 
and  given 
by  a  Pythia. 


The  Olym- 
pian games 
show  the 
importance 
of  physical 
develop- 
ment to 
the  Greeks. 


like  all  the  Greeks,  were  rather  given  to  quarrelling.  There 
were  two  principal  amphictyonies,  one  with  its  centre  at 
Delphi,  in  central  Greece,  and  the  other  with  its  shrine 
at  De'los,  one  of  the  central  islands  of  the  ^Egean  Sea. 
Each  of  these  confederations  had  an  amphictyonic  council 
made  up  of  delegates  from  the  members  of  the  amphictyony . 

135.  The  Oracles.  —  At  Delphi  there  was  a  shrine  of 
Apollo  and  an  oracle  which  all  Greeks,  even  those  from 
northern  Greece,  the  iEgean  islands,  Peloponnesus  or 
Sic'i-ly  frequently  sought  for  advice.  This  religious  in- 
stitution was  devised  to  help  men  who  had  angered  the 
gods.  The  oracles  told  them  how  they  might  appease 
the  deities.  The  advice  of  the  oracle  was  so  famous  that 
no  city  built  a  fleet  or  made  war  or  changed  its  govern- 
ment or  sent  out  a  colony  without  consulting  the  oracle. 

The  questioner  brought  his  request  to  the  priest  of 
Apollo  and  was  told  when  he  should  return  for  his  answer. 
The  reply  was  given  by  a  priestess  called  a  Pyth'i-a, 
sitting  on  the  sacred  tripod.  Answers  were  framed  by  a 
body  of  priests,  among  whom  were  not  only  some  of  the 
wisest  men  of  Greece  but  men  who  kept  informed  about 
everything  that  went  on.  An  answer  was  given  in  such 
general  language  and  was  so  ambiguous  in  meaning  that 
it  might  easily  be  construed  by  an  intelligent  petitioner 
to  indorse  any  possible  course.  Hence  we  call  an  expres- 
sion that  may  mean  more  than  one  thing  '^  oracular." 
The  oracle  must  be  considered  not  only  one  of  the  chief 
bonds  of  unity  among  the  Greeks,  but  one  of  the  most 
important  influences  in  Greek  history. 

136.  The  Greek  Games.  —  The  Greeks  had  many  local 
festivals  to  the  patron  deity  of  each  city.  One  of  these, 
which  was  held  at  Olympia  in  western  Peloponnesus, 
developed  into  a  great  assembly  of  all  Greeks,  held  every 
four  years.  We  should  be  careful  not  to  confuse 
Olympia  with  Mt.  Olympus,  on  which  the  gods  dwelt. 


THE   UNITY   OF  THE   GREEKS 


107 


108 


THE   NEAR  EAST 


The  foot- 
race, the 
Pentath- 
lon and 
other 
contests. 


Other 
Greek 
games. 

Importance 
of  the 
Olympian 
games  in 
reckoning 
time  and 
in  stimu- 
lating phys- 
ical effort 
and  artistic 
skill. 


The  religious  festival  was  later  subordinated  to  athletic 
contests,  the  first  and  most  important  of  which  was  the 
running  race  of  600  Olympic  feet.  As  the  Greeks  above 
everj'thing  else  admired  swiftness,  they  developed  their 
bodies  as  no  other  people  have  done  before  or  since,  because 
a  perfectly  developed,  agile  bod}^  was  pleasing  to  the  gods. 

After  a  time  the  foot-race  was  followed  by  the  Pen- 
tath'lon ;  that  is,  by  jumping,  running,  throwing  the 
discus,  hurling  the  javelin  and  wresthng.  Later  boxing, 
chariot  racing  and  poetical  contests  were  introduced. 
Only  a  Greek  could  take  part,  but  women,  foreigners  and 
slaves  were  allowed  to  watch  the  games.  The  victor 
was  crowned  with  a  wreath  of  laurel  and  he  was  received 
with  great  honor,  especially  in  his  home  city.  Within  re- 
cent years  we  have  revived  international  athletic  contests 
on  the  Greek  model.  These  are  held  every  four  years  and 
are  called  the  Olympic  games. 

Besides  the  Olympian  games  were  those  less  widely 
attended  called  the  Ne-me'an,  the  Isth'rni-an  and  the 
Pyth'i-an. 

137.  Importance  of  the  National  Games.  —  The  Olym- 
pic games  were  held  first  in  77G  B.C.,  the  date  from  which 
the  Greeks  reckoned  time,  saying  that  an  event  happened 
in  the  third  year  of  the  42d  0-lym'pi-ad,  for  instance, 
since  the  four-year  interval  betw^een  the  Olympic  contests 
was  called  an  Olympiad.  No  war  between  two  Greek 
states  could  be  waged  during  the  period  set  aside  for  the 
games,  as  all  were  Greeks  for  the  time.  The  games 
stimulated  those  virtues  that  appealed  especially  to  the 
Greek :  physical  beauty  and  strength,  swiftness,  musical 
skill  and  poetic  ability.  The  Greek  loved  to  excel,  and 
the  contests  on  the  track  or  between  artists  or  poets 
brought  out  the  best  that  Greeks  could  do.  Greek  statu- 
ary copied  the  well-developed  bodies  of  the  athletes, 
for  Greek  sculpture  glorified  the    body   in    action.     At 


THE   GREATER  GREEK   WORLD  109 

Olympia  there  was  erected  a  huge  temple  to  Zeus,  in 
which  the  greatest  Greek  sculptor,  Phicri-as,  placed  his 
masterpiece  of  gold  and  ivory,  the  Olympian  Zeus. 

The  Greater  Greek  World 

138.  The    Greek    World.  —  When    we    think    of    the  Greece,  the 
Greeks,  we  ordinarily  think  of  the  people  of  the  peninsula     f^?^      , 
of  Greece,  not  those  of  the  ^^gean  area  or  of  the  wider  Athens, 
field,  the  central  Mediterranean,  over  which  Greek  colo- 
nies were  dotted  later.     We  must  remember,  however,  that 

the  Greeks,  or  Hellenes,  as  they  called  themselves,  lived  in 
three  homes,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Greece  and  in  the  West 
(Sicily  and  southern  Italy).  Although  we  shall  study 
especially  the  history  of  Greece  proper,  we  cannot  always 
separate  the  Greek  of  Asia  Minor  from  the  Greek  of  Greece 
or  the  Greek  of  Sicily.  In  reality  when  we  study  the 
Greeks  of  Greece,  most  of  the  time  we  are  studying  the 
Greeks  of  Athens,  for  Athens  rather  than  the  peninsula 
of  Greece  developed  the  art,  the  literature  and  the  phi- 
losophy that  were  Greece's  great  contributions  to  the 
world. 

139.  Early  Colonization  Movement.  —  Greece  was  the  Two  great 
original  home  of  the  Hellenes.     There  were  two  great  colonizing 

.  .  .  .  .    .  movements. 

periods  of  migration  from  the  original  homes  to  other 
lands.  The  first  of  these  occurred  perhaps  a  century 
after  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  due  to  the  invasions  from 
the  north  of  a  fair-skinned  warlike  people  called  the 
Do'ri-ans,  who  had  almost  the  first  iron  weapons.  The 
second  colonizing  movement  lasted  from  about  800  b.c. 
to  600  B.C. 

When  the  Dorians  came  down  into  the  Peloponnesus, 
they  forced  out  many  of  the  people  who  had  been  living 
there.  Some  of  these  people  moved  up  into  central 
Greece,  some  occupied  the  islands  of  the  ^gean,  and  a 
large  number,  including  some  Dorians,  settled  on  the  shores 


110 


TIIK    NKAR   EAST 


Coloniza- 
tion of 
vEgean  is- 
lands and 
Asiatic 
coasts 
after 

Dorian  mi- 
grations. 


Extent  of 
second  col- 
onization 
movement. 


Causes  of 
later  col- 
onization. 


Process  of 
forming  a 
colony. 


of  the  JEgean  in  Asia  Minor.  These  Asiatic  Greek  cities 
were  })rought  easily  into  contact  with  the  highly  developed 
civilizations  of  the  Orient.  They  occupied  fertile  valleys 
that  produced  fruits  and  grains  and  were  near  extensive 
hill-sides  upon  which  thousands  of  cattle  and  sheep  were 
grazing.  Consequently  these  Asiatic  cities  had  goods  to 
exchange,  and  carried  on  extensive  trade  with  ports  of 
the  eastern  Mediterranean.  One  of  these  cities,  Mi-le'tus, 
was  famous  for  its  manufactures,  its  trade  in  wool,  its 
wealth  and  its  culture,  long  before  Athens  and  Corinth 
became  great  cities. 

140.  Nature  of  Later  Colonization.  —  The  later  col- 
onization movement  peopled  with  Greek  colonies  or 
trading  posts  the  north  shores  of  the  ^gean  Sea,  the 
Propontus  and  the  Black  Sea  on  the  north  and  east.  In 
the  West  colonies  were  founded  chiefly  in  Italy,  in  Sicily 
and  in  Gaul. 

The  most  important  causes  of  the  colonization  move- 
ment were  undoubtedly  economic.  The  Greeks  were 
gradually  driving  the  Phoenicians  out  of  the  ^gean  Sea 
and  adjacent  waters,  and  they  desired  the  trade  of  the 
West.  Almost  as  important  were  the  attractions  of 
fertile  lands,  especially  in  Italy  and  Gaul,  for  these  coun- 
tries were  much  more  fertile  than  Greece.  The  over- 
population of  the  home  city  was  an  important  cause  of 
colonization.  At  this  time  also  the  government  of  the 
cities  was  changing  from  monarchy,  as  in  Homer's  time, 
to  rule  by  the  aristocracy.  P>equently  different  factions 
of  nobles  quarrelled  with  one  another,  and  the  leader  of 
one  of  the  factions  would  be  forced  to  leave  the  home  city, 
or  would  do  so  voluntarily,  with  his  followers. 

141.  Method  of  Colonization.  —  These  great  migrations 
occurred  during  the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries  before 
Christ.  When  a  city  in  Greece  decided  that  it  wished 
to  found  a  colony,  it  looked  around  for  a  favorable  site. 


THE    GREATER   GREEK  WORLD  111 

Then  it  usually  consulted  the  oracle  and  finally  a  hand 
was  sent  out  with  sacred  fire  from  the  hearth  of  the  mother 
city. 

The  colonists  lost  their  citizenship  in  their  home  citj',  Relation 

but  they  acquired   a  new  citizenship  which  was  worth  ^^  ^^^ 

more  to  them.     Frequently  the  mother  city  helped  them  the  mother 

in  their  later  troubles.  ^^*y- 

142.  Colonies  in  the   Northeast.  —  Most  of  the  colo-  The  trading 
nies    north   and   east   of   Greece   were    trading    colonies  colonies  of 

.  T  . ,  .  ...  r\  ^  •  the  north 

rather  than  miportant  cities.     On    the  most  important  ^gean  and 

site  near  the  Black  sea,  where  Constantinople  now  stands,  Black  seas. 
the  colony  of  By-zan'ti-urn  was  established. 

The  hills  near  the  shores    of    the  north  ^gean  Sea  Products 

abounded  in  minerals,  especially  copper,  silver  and  iron,  pbtamed 

which  the  Greeks  desired.     In  all  these  seas  there  was  an  north 

abundance  of  fish,  and  the  semi-civilized  people  of  the  ^s^an  and 

T-»iici  •  -1  ..p.  Black  sea 

lilack  feea  countries  raised  great  quantities  oi  gram  and  areas. 
cattle.  As  the  Phoenicians  were  no  longer  allowed  to 
trade  in  this  part  of  the  world,  there  was  considerable 
profit  in  the  commerce  between  the  older  Greek  cities  and 
the  colonies  of  the  north  and  east.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  the  great  legendary  expedition  of  the  Greeks, 
that  of  the  Ar'go-nauts,  who  brought  back  the  Golden 
Fleece,  was  supposed  to  have  been  a  trip  to  the  Black  Sea. 

143.  Colonization  in  the   West.  —  It  was  not  to  the   important 
north  and  east  but  to  the  west  that  most  of  the  Greeks  colonies  m 

Sicily. 

turned.^  Sicily  contained  a  great  many  of  these  mixed 
colonies,  for  Sicily  was  in  ancient  times  '^  the  melting  pot 
of  the  nations."  On  the  fine  harbor  of  the  east  coast, 
Syr'a-cuse  had  been  founded  by  Corinthians.  Farther  west 
were  Ge'la  and  Ag-ri-gen'tum.     In  the  north  were  Mes- 

^  In  northern  Africa  there  was  a  colony  at  Cyreno  in  modern  Tripoli. 
In  the  period  after  the  invasions  of  Egypt  by  the  Assyrians  (§  47)  the 
Greeks  had  a  colony  in  the  Delta  of  the  Nile,  and  Greek  "quarters"  in 
most  of  the  Egyptian  commercial  cities. 


112 


THE   NP]AR  EAvST 


Cities  on 
the  "heel" 
and  "toe" 
of  Italy. 


Cumse  and 
Massilia. 


More    rapid 
develop- 
ment of 
colonies 
than  of 
Greek 
cities. 


Extent  of 
Greek  in- 
fluence. 


sa'na  and  Him'e-ra,  where  later  a  decisive  battle  was  fought. 
At  the  west  end  of  the  island  were  Phoenician  colonies. 

In  southern  Italy  the  Greek  colonies  were  so  important 
that  that  area  was  called  ''Magna  Grsecia,"  or  great  Greece. 
The  only  good  harbor  was  at  Ta-ren'tum,  which  was  the 
last  Greek  city  in  Italy  to  be  taken  by  the  Romans  (§  298). 

Going  up  the  wTst  coast  of  Italy  we  come  to  Cu'mae.^ 
Near  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone  in  Gaul  was  the  important 
colony  of  Mas-siVi-a,  now  Marseilles. 

144.  Importance  of  Greek  Colonization.  —  These  Greek 
colonies  not  only  carried  Greek  ideas  to  all  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean  world,  but  they  developed  many  distinc- 
tively Greek  ideas  and  institutions  before  they  were  to 
be  found  in  the  cities  of  Greece  proper.  Because  they 
were  located  in  more  fertile  valleys  or  plains,  and  had 
better  opportunities  for  trade,  the  cities  of  Italy  and 
Sicily,  as  well  as  Asia  Minor,  were  larger  and  richer  than 
those  of  Greece  before  the  Persian  w^ars.  One  of  the 
western  cities  had  a  code  of  laws  earlier  than  Athens 
(§  151).  Another  was  self-governing  before  Cleisthenes 
made  Athens  a  real  democracy.  Some  of  the  chief  poets, 
as  Homer  and  Sap'pho  for  instance,  and  some  great 
philosophers,  such  as  Tha'les  and  Py-thag'o-ras,  lived 
outside  of  Greece. 

When  we  realize  that  the  Greeks,  or  Hellenes,  not  only 
occupied  Greece  but  were  dominant  in  Asia  Minor,  in  the 
islands  of  the  ^gean  Sea,  in  southern  Italy,  Sicily  and 
more  remote  territories,  we  can  appreciate  better  the 
importance  of  the  work  done  by  the  Greeks.  Since 
the  Hellenes  were  united  by  bonds  of  blood  and  religion, 
they  shared  in  the  interests  that  any  Greek  had  and  in  the 

*  Cumae  was  founded  in  the  early  days  of  the  Greeks.  For  many  cen- 
turies a  great  deal  of  Greek  civilization  came  to  Rome  through  Cumae. 
Massilia  controlled  the  trade  of  the  Rhone  valley  and  protected  that 
and  Spain.  It  is  remarkal)le  that  this  colony  was  able  to  hold  its  own 
against  aggressive  Carthage  (§§  308-311). 


between 
the  races. 


SPARTA  113 

civilization  that  any  Greek  developed.  Greek  coloniza- 
tion was  one  of  the  greatest  movements  in  the  history  of 
the  world. 

Sparta 

145.  Ionian  and  Dorian.  —  The  two  most  important  Distinction 
races  of  Greece  proper  were  called  I-o'ni-an  and  Do'ri-an.^ 
The  Dorians  were  the  last  of  the  Greek  races  to  invade 
Greece.  They  were  tall,  fair  and  rather  stolid,  more 
inclined  to  be  practical  than  the  other  Greeks,  and  in- 
terested in  war  and  farm  life.     The  lonians  were  shorter 

and  darker  but  no  less  distinguished  in  appearance  than 
the  Dorians.  They  were  imaginative,  fond  of  poetry 
and  interested  in  the  sea.  For  a  few  minutes  let  us  study 
the  leading  cities  of  these  two  races :  Sparta,  the  leading 
city  of  the  Dorians,  and  Athens,  the  most  prominent 
Ionian  city. 

146.  Sparta  and  Laconia.  —  Sparta  is  located  in  a  basin  Sparta  and 
of  southern  Peloponnesus  and  is  surrounded  by  mountains.   Lacoma. 

^  Classes  in 

The  district  or  city-state  of  which  Sparta  was  the  head  Laconia. 
was  called  Laconia.  In  Laconia  there  were  three  classes 
of  people,  first  the  Spartans,  who  did  not  number  more 
than  10,000  men ;  then  the  Per-i-oi'ci,  the  original  in- 
habitants who  were  subdued  by  the  Spartans  and  had  no 
share  in  the  government,  and  third,  the  He'lots,  who  were 
serfs,  bound  to  the  land,  who  could  not  be  sold  except  with 
the  land. 

147.  The  Training  of  a  Spartan  Boy.  —  The  Spartans  Spartan 
were  a  military  people  who  lived  the  hardy,  simple  life  of  ^^^.^  ,  , 
the  soldier.     When  a  child  was  born,  it  was  examined  b}^  a  military 
the  magistrates,  and  if  it  showed  any  physical  defect,  it  ^^^^' 
was  exposed  so  that  it  perished.     Until  the  age  of  seven 

1  Two  other  races  were  the  Achceans,  presumably  the  descendants 
of  the  people  of  Homer,  and  the  ^tolians,  scattered  races  of  still  older 
stock. 


114 


THE   NEAR  EAST 


The  severe 
training  of 
companies 
of  youths. 


The  free 
and  active 
life  of  the 
Spartan 
women. 


Spartan 
character- 
istics — 
iron  money 
and  laconic 
speech. 


The  laws 
of  "Ly- 
curgus" 
established 
an  aris- 
tocratic 
govern- 
ment. 


years  the  boys  were  cared  for  by  their  mothers.  After 
that  they  were  brought  up  by  the  state,  being  fed  at  pub- 
lic tables  and  at  public  expense.  The  food  was  not  only 
coarse  but  limited  in  amount.  In  order  to  get  enough  to 
eat  the  boys  were  encouraged  to  steal,  for  soldiers  must 
forage,  but  they  must  not  be  caught.  Stealing  was  hon- 
orable to  the  Spartan,  but  being  caught  was  a  crime. 
As  the  youths  became  older  they  were  enrolled  in  com- 
panies which  exercised,  ate,  slept  and  fought  together. 
Courage,  endurance  and  hardness  were  the  Spartan  vir- 
tues, and  no  Spartan  could  excel  who  gave  way  under  the 
scourging  before  the  statue  of  Ar'te-mis,  or  who  showed 
the  white  feather  under  any  circumstances. 

148.  The  Free  and  Simple  Life  of  the  Spartans.  —  The 
Spartan  women  were  active,  hardy  and  courageous,  like 
the  men.  They  did  not  go  to  war,  but  they  sent  their 
husbands  and  their  sons  with  the  warning  to  come  back 
with  their  shields  or  on  them ;  that  is,  to  come  back  con- 
querors or  dead  heroes.  They  lived  a  free  and  open 
life,  something  quite  unusual  among  Greek  women.  Their 
advice  was  sought  and  given  on  all  matters  of  importance. 

As  was  fitting  for  soldiers,  the  Spartans  kept  luxuries 
out  of  their  country.  They  did  this  bj^  using  only  iron 
moneij  for  trade  within  Laconia.  The  Spartans  despised 
talkers.  When  they  had  anything  to  say,  they  did  it  in 
one  word  or  in  a  few  words.  We  call  a  saying  laconic  if 
it  is  very  brief  and  to  the  point. 

149.  Sparta  :  Government  and  Leadership.^  —  The  Spar- 
tans did  not  beli(;ve  in  popular  government,  and  they  did 

^  The  government  of  Sparta  in  early  historical  times  consisted  of  two 
kings,  of  five  ephor.s,  of  a  council  of  the  ciders,  and  of  the  assembly  of  all 
Spartan  men.  The  kings  were  the  leaders  in  war  and  the  chief  priests 
of  the  Spartans.  The  ephors  supervised  all  Spartan  affairs,  and,  with 
the  help  of  the  council,  decided  all  important  questions,  but  the  members 
of  the  assembly  could  only  express  their  wishes  by  voting  "yes"  or 
"no"  on  questions  submitted  to  them. 


ATHENS 


115 


not  adopt  changes  readily.  It  was  believed  that  their 
early  government  was  given  to  them  by  Ly-cur'gus,  who 
made  them  promise  not  to  change  it  without  his  consent, 
and  then  died  in  exile.  Lycurgus  lived  before  history  was 
written,  so  that  we  must  not  believe  very  much  about  him. 

Sparta  not  only  ruled   her   citizens  severely   but   she   Sparta  and 
conquered  her  immediate  neighbors,   and  she  organized   p^^^^^jj^n 
the  other  city-states  of  Peloponnesus  into  the  Pel-op-on-  League 
ne'sian  League.     Through  her  own  military  ability  and  the   q  ^ee^^^^^ 
support  of  the  Peloponnesian  League,  Sparta  trained  the   civHization. 
other  Greeks,  showing  them  how  to  organize  their  soldiers 
into  companies,   and  teaching  them  how  to  fight.     She 
aroused  in  some  of  the  other  city-states  something  of  her 
own  indomitable  spirit.     In  this  way  Sparta  protected 
and  preserved  Greek  civilization. 

Athens 


150.  Athens,  Location  and  Early  Government.  — 
Athens  is  located  at  the  foot  of  a  steep  hill  of  rock,  the 
A-crop'o-lis,  that  rises  abruptly  above  the  plain  of  Attica. 
It  is  about  five  miles  from  the  sea,  and  from  an  excellent 
harbor,  the  Pi-rse'us.  The  city  was  therefore  well  located 
for  defence  against  enemies  and  had  an  opportunity  to 
develop  commerce.  The  only  way  that  Greeks  ever 
gained  any  real  wealth  was  through  commerce  or  con- 
quests. 

In  an  early  day  Athens  was  ruled,  like  all  the  other 
Greek  cities,  b}^  a  king.  After  a  time,  the  nobles  decided 
that  they  wished  to  have  officials  chosen  by  themselves. 
There  were  nine  of  these  magistrates,  called  ar'chons. 
The  first  archonwas  a  judge,  the  second,  called  the  king- 
archon,  was  a  priest,  and  the  third  was  the  general. 
This  represented  the  aristocratic  stage  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Athens. 


Importance 
of  the  lo- 
cation of 
Athens  for 
defence 
and  for 
commerce. 


Monarchy 
and  aristo- 
cratic rule 
in  Athens. 


116 


THE   NEAR  EAST 


The  harsh 

code  of 

Draco 

modifies 

aristocratic 

rule  in 

Athens. 


151.  A  Written  Law  in  Athens.  —  The  Athenian  people 
were  not  conservative  hke  the  Spartans.  They  were  fond 
of  speeches  and  welcomed  changes.  As  they  were  dis- 
satisfied with  many  things  that  the  archons  did,  they 
obtained  (621  b.c.)  a  written  law.  These  laws  were 
called  the  code  of  Dra'co,  from  the  name  of  the  leader  who 
had  charge  of  the  codification.      Draco's  laws  were  very 


The  intro- 
duction of 
money  into 
Greece  in- 
creases 
debt. 


The  Acropolis,  Athens,  Present  Condition, 
see  frontispiece.) 


(For  restoration, 


harsh,  death  being  the  punishment  for  many  minor  of- 
fences such  as  stealing,  and  enslavement  being  the  pun- 
ishment of  a  person  who  got  in  debt  and  could  not  pay  the 
debt  when  due.  Although  the  people  had  made  some  prog- 
ress in  obtaining  a  wTitten  law,  they  found  that  they  were 
not  much  better  off,  because  the  laws  were  so  severe. 

152.  The  Reforms  of  Solon.  —  About  this  time  the 
people  of  Greece  began  to  use  money.  Before  this,  when 
a  man  wanted  to  buy  anything,  he  traded  something  else 
for  it.  If  possible  the  seller  asked  a  bar  of  copper,  or  a 
bit  of  gold  or  silver  for  it,  because  there  was  a  general 
demand  for  gold,   silver  and  copper.     Now  the   Lydians 


ATHENS  117 

had  invented  the  device  of  stamping  a  certain  amount 
of  metal  in  the  shape  of  a  circle.     These  stamped  circles 
we  call   coins.     When   coins  wer^   first   introduced   into 
Greece,  business  was  very  much  upset 
by   the    change.     Farmers  who  before 
this  time  had  paid  their  rents  in  prod- 
uce, now  were  forced  to  sell  their  prod- 
uce and  pay  the  rents  in  money.     As 
a  result   many  of  them   kept   getting 
deeper  and  deeper  into  debt.     Accord- 
ing  to   the   old   law   which   had   been 

IP  !•      1        Trc  ii'ii?  Ancient  Coin. 

made  tor  an  entirely  dmerent  kind  oi 

business,  they  could  be  sold  into  slavery,  if  the  debt  was 

not  paid. 

In  order  to   prevent   a  revolution,   a  wise   Athenian,   The  reforms 
So'lon,  was  called  upon  to  reform  the  laws,  594  b.c.     Solon  °    °  °°* 
first  abolished  slavery  for  debt.     Then  he  reduced  the 
debts,  and,  finally,  he  gave  all  citizens,  even  the  poorest,  a 
share  in  the  courts  of  justice. 

153.  Rule  of  the  Tyrants  in  Athens.  —  It  was  not  very  After  a  half 
long   after   Solon's   reforms   before   Athens   followed  the  ^^^^ury  of 

...  tyranny, 

lead  of  other  cities  in  Greece  and  in  the  West,  by  changing  Athens 
her  rule  of  the  aristocrats  for  that  of  a  single  "  boss  "   expels  her 

^  tyrants  who 

called  a  ''  tyrant."  Under  the  chief  of  these  tyrants,  ask  help 
Pi-sis'tra-tus,  Attica^ became  more  prosperous  and  Athens  °^  Persia. 
developed  her  commerce  and  industries.  In  a  very  true 
sense,  Pisistratus  paved  the  way  for  Athens  to  become  a 
great  city.  After  a  half  century  under  the  rule  of  these 
tyrants,  the  last  of  them,  Hip'pi-as,  was  driven  out  by  an 
aUiance  of  the  aristocrats  and  the  Spartans  (510  B.C.). 
Hippias  afterward  went  to  the  Persians,  who  had  conquered 
the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  Minor  (§  167)  and  asked  for  help 
in  order  to  regain  his  position  in  Athens.  So  the  Athe- 
nians had  to  be  prepared  to  fight  the  Persians  in  order  to 
keep  Hippias  out  of  the  city. 


118 


THE  NEAR  EAST 


The  re- 
forms of 
Cleisthenes 
make 
Athens 
democratic. 


Cretan  or 
-^gean 
civilization 
and  its 
extension. 


154.  The  Reforms  of  Cleisthenes.  —  As  soon  as  Hippias 
was  driven  out  there  arose  a  confiict  among  the  aristo- 
crats. One  of  them,  Cleis'the-nes,  gained  control  of  the 
government  through  the  aid  of  the  people,  and  immedi- 
ately introduced  changes  in  the  laws  by  which  Athens 
became  the  first  real  democracy  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
Cleisthenes  allowed  many  foreigners  and  freedmen  to 
become  citizens,  and  he  changed  the  government  so  that 
the  officials  and  councils  were  no  longer  chosen  by  the 
wealthy  citizens,  but  by  all  of  the  adult  male  citizens. 
Almost  all  American  states  have  the  same  regulations  in 
regard  to  voting.  We  call  this  ''  manhood  suffrage.'^ 
As  Athens,  like  every  other  Greek  city,  had  suffered  greatly 
from  the  quarrels  of  the  leaders,  he  devised  a  scheme  by 
which  the  people  might  keep  the  leader  that  they  wished 
and  send  his  opponent  into  exile.  In  this  way  the  ac- 
ceptable leader  had  a  free  hand  in  managing  the  affairs  of 
the  city.  The  people  did  this  by  writing  the  name  of 
the  rejected  leader  on  a  bit  of  pottery,  and  the  process 
was  called  os'tra-cism.  This  popular  government  under 
aristocratic  leaders  was  much  appreciated  by  the  Athe- 
nians. They  became  intensely  interested  in  public  affairs, 
and  they  defended  Athens  and  their  new  democracy  with 
a  great  deal  of  spirit. 

155.  Summary.  —  The  ^Egean  area  was  the  seat  of 
the  third  great  civilization  of  antiquity,  the  other  two 
being  Egypt  and  Babylonia.  Much  of  this  Cretan  or 
iEgean  civilization,  however,  was  derived  from  Egypt. 
The  Golden  Age  of  Crete  came  about  1500  B.C.,  about  the 
time  of  Thotmes  III  in  Eg37)t.  Then  Cretan  art  was  at 
its  best  and  Crete  probal)ly  ruled  most  of  the  ^Egean  area. 
Cretan  civilization  was  spread  over  the  whole  ^Egean  basin 
and  west  into  Sicily  and  Italy.  It  survived  in  the  My- 
cenaean civilization  of  the  age  just  before  the  Trojan  war. 

The  Trojan  war  and  the  wanderings  of  Ulysses  are  the 


ATHENS 


119 


chief  events  in  what  we  call  the  Homeric  Age,  because 
we  read  of  them  in  Homer's  two  great  epic  poems,  the 
Iliad  and  the  Odyssey.  Life  in  the  Homeric  Age  shows 
a  crude  people  interested  in  agriculture  and  pastoral 
pursuits,  with  a  great  gulf  between  the  common  people 
and  their  leaders. 

The  Greeks,  or  Hellenes,  were  bound  together  by  blood 
ties  that  were  very  strong  and  were  the  basis  of  religion 


The 

Homeric 

period. 


Route  of  Xerxes 
Battles X 


Sparta      X"  ""^'^aOO   ' 


^ 


'3 


■ILLIAI^S  ENG.  CO.._NEW   YOfl-' 


Map  of  Greece  at  the  Time  of  the  Persian  War. 

and  government.  The  geography  of  Greece  and  the  jeal- 
ousy and  the  local  patriotism  of  the  Greeks  led  them  to 
adopt  the  form  of  government  known  as  the  city-state. 
Extremes  of  weather  made  the  Greeks  hardy,  their  poor 
soil  made  them  industrious  and  caused  them  to  turn  to 
the  sea  for  a  living. 

The  Greeks  had  many  interesting  mj^ths  and   legends 
of  their  gods.     Jupiter  (Zeus)  was  the  father  of  the  gods 


The  Greeks, 
bonds  and 
races.  Geog- 
raphy of 
Greece,  city- 
states  and 
occupations. 


120 


THE   NEAR  EAST 


Greek  re- 
ligion, bond 
of  unity, 
coloniza- 
tion. 


Sparta,  the 
military 
Dorian  city 
contrasted 
with 

Athens,  the 
democratic 
Ionian  city. 


and  the  chief  of  the  Olympic  deities.  The  Greeks  offered 
sacrifices  to  get  favors  or  to  ward  off  calamities.  The 
Greeks  (Hellenes)  were  bound  together  not  only  by  ties 
of  blood,  but  by  religious  confederations  called  amphicty- 
onies,  by  national  religious  oracles  and  by  national  games, 
especially  at  Olympia.  The  victor  of  an  Olympic  contest 
was  the  great  national  hero  who  was  crowned  with  a 
wreath  of  laurel.  The  larger  Greek  world  that  met  at 
Olympia  was  made  up  of  people  from  peninsular  Greece, 
the  islands  of  the  ^gean,  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  which 
were  very  early  colonies,  and  the  cities  of  Sicily  and 
Magna  Grsecia,  which  were  later  Greek  colonies. 

The  chief  Dorian  city,  Sparta,  was  a  military  camp 
ruled  by  the  aristocracy  under  kings.  The  life  was  simple, 
the  discipline  severe  and  the  Spartan  virtues  were  courage 
and  endurance.  The  chief  Ionian  city,  Athens,  on  the 
contrary,  was  intellectual,  versatile  and  commercial. 
Before  the  Persian  war  it  passed  through  the  four  stages 
of  pohtical  development  that  characterized  the  most  pro- 
gressive Greek  cities,  that  is,  monarchy,  aristocracy,  tyr- 
anny and  democracy.  The  most  important  political 
reforms  at  Athens  were  those  of  Draco,  who  gave  the 
Athenians  a  written  law;  of  Solon,  who  abolished  debt- 
slavery  ;  and  of  Cleisthenes,  who  introduced  a  real  de- 
mocracy. 

General  References 

Botsford,  History  oj  the  Ancient  World,  59-156. 
Morey,  Outlines  of  Greek  History,  69-164. 
Fling,  Source  Book  of  Greek  History,  1-97. 
Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient  History,  I,  62-129. 
Hall,  Ancient  History  of  the  Near  East,  31-79. 
Cotterill,  Ancient  Greece,  1-181. 
Stobert,  The  Glory  that  was  Greece,  1-131. 
Hawes,  Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece. 
Baikie,  The  Sea  Kings  of  Crete. 
Holm,  History  of  Greece,  Vol.  I. 


ATHENS 


121 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  i 


Egypt 

Tigris-Euphrates 

East  Mediter- 

^gean Area 

Valley 

ranean  Coast 

4241  Calendar 

3400  Menes 

3000-2800  Great 

2800  Sumerian 

Pyramid 

Code 

2600  Early  ^gean 

builders 

2650  Sargon  of 
Agade  and  his 

civilization 

2000-1800 

empire. 

Splendor  of 

1900  Hammu- 

the Middle 

rabi    and    his 

Kingdom 

empire,    last- 
ing      several 

1650  Hyksos 

centuries. 

kings 

1575  Hyksos 

driven  out 

1479 

1400  Rise  of 

1500  Splendors  of 

Thotmes  III 

Phoenician 

Crete.      Golden 

and  his  empire 

cities 

Age   of   Minoan 
rulers 

1292  Rameses  II 

1300  Rise  of 

1380  Hittite 

1350  Mycenaean 

Assyria 

empire 
Exodus  of 

Hebrews  from 
Egypt 

civilization 

1150  Decline  of 

1100  Tiglath- 

Phoenician  colo- 

1183 Trojan  war 

empire 

Pileser  I 

nization 

Chaldeans  in 

1015-935 

Babylonia 

Hebrew  king- 

dom,     David 

Lycurgus 

and  Solomon 

776  First 

740  Assyrian 

722  Destruc- 

Olympiad 

empire  begins 

tion  of 

800-600  Coloni- 

Samaria 

zation  of  Greeks 

672  Assyrian 

invasion 

625    Revival    of 

Rise  of  the 

586  Destruction 

621  Draco 

Egypt 

Medes 

of  Jerusalem 

Period  of  Greek 

606  Fall  of 

594  Reforms  of 

influence 

Nineveh 

Solon 

604    Nebuchad- 

Tyrants  in   many 

nezzar 

Greek  cities 

Rise  of  Persia 

525  Conquest 

538  Fall  of 

509  Reforms  of 

by  Persia 

Babylon 

Cleisthenes 

^  The  early  dates  are,  of  course,  'estimated.  For  example,  some  high 
authorities  think  that  Menes  lived  earlier  than  5000  B.C.  and  that  Sargon 
ruled  in  3800  b.c. 


122  THE   NEAR  EAST 

Topics 

The  Palace  at  Knossos  :  Hall,  Ancient  History  of  the  Near 
East,  42-47 ;  Hawes,  Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  4&-75 ; 
Baikie,   Sea  Kings  of  Crete,  63-116. 

Mycen^  :  Cotterill,  Ancient  Greece,  9-17 ;  Stobert,  The 
Glory  that  was  Greece,  23-24. 

Greek  Colonization  :  Morey,  Outlines  of  Greek  History, 
139-148;  Fling,  Source  Book  of  Greek  History,  29-41;  Holm, 
History  of  Greece,  I,  140-148,  267-294. 

Solon  :  Fling,  Source  Book,  81-86 ;  Cunningham,  Western 
Civilization  in  Its  Economic  Aspects,  I,  99-105 ;  Plutarch, 
Lives,  "Solon." 

Studies 

1.  The  charm  of  Greek  scenery.     Zimmern,  The  Greek  Com- 
monwealth, 13-17. 

2.  Influence  of  the  geography  of  Greece. 

3.  The   Cretan   palace  at  Knossos.     Baikie,  J.,  in  National 
Geographic  Magazine,  23  (1912),  7-15. 

4.  Crete  and  Egypt.     Baikie,  The  Sea  Kings  of  Crete,  139- 
169. 

5.  Crete  and  Greece.     Hawes,  Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece, 
144-154. 

6.  Rameses  III  and  the  ^Egean  peoples.     Cormack,  Egypt  in 
Asia,  220-230. 

7.  The  influence  of   the   East   upon   the  Greeks.     Hogarth, 
Ionia  and  the  East,  99-117. 

8.  The   Trojan  war.     Guerber,   Myths  of  Greece  and   Rome, 
305-336. 

9.  Family  life  in  the  Homeric  age.     Fling,  Source  Book  of 
Greek  History,  1-7. 

10.  The  city-state.  Botsford,  Source  Book  of  Ancient  His- 
tory, 97-101. 

11.  Pandora  and  her  box.  Guerber,  Myths  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  28-35. 

12.  Jason  and  the  Golden  Fleece.  Guerber,  Myths  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  263-274. 

13.  The  Lower  World  of  Greek  Mythology.  Guerber,  Myths 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  160-170. 

14.  The  oracle  at  Delphi.  Snedeker,  The  Spartan,  343-354, 
366-370. 


ATHENS  123 

15.  The   Olympic   games.     Blumner    (Zimmern),    Home   Life 
of  the  Ancient  Greeks,  352-359. 

16.  The  training  of  the  Spartans.  Fling,  Source  Book  of 
Greek  History,  66-76. 

17.  The  Peloponnesian  League.  Botsford,  Source  Book  of 
Ancient  History,  119-121. 

18.  The  reforms  of  Cleisthenes.  Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient 
History,  I,  120-129. 

Questions 

1.  Into  what  three  parts  is  Greece  divided  geographically? 
Show  how  they  are  different  and  name  a  city  or  place  in  each. 

2.  What  was  the  nature  of  the  geography  of  Greece  ?  How 
did  the  geography  influence  the  people  ?  Point  out  on  the  map  : 
Sparta,  Argolis,  Olympia,  Corinth,  ^gina,  Salamis,  Plataea, 
Thebes,  Euboea,  Thessaly,  Chalcidice,  Delos,  Rhodes,  Samos, 
Miletus,  Ephesus,  Sardis,  Phocaea,  Hellespont,  Propontis  and 
Bosporus. 

3.  Name  and  give  the  difference  between  the  first  three 
civilizations  of  the  ^gean  area. 

4.  What  were  Knossos,  the  minotaur,  the  labyrinth,  the  lion 
gate,  the  Vapio  cups  ? 

5.  Why  was  the  horse  so  important  that  it  was  considered 
sacred  by  many  ancient  peoples?  Why  did  the  Anthenians  ac- 
cept the  offer  of  Athena  (Minerva) ,  the  olive,  instead  of  that  of 
Apollo,  the  horse  ?     (Compare  §  121.) 

6.  Name  the  three  great  epic  poems  of  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans,  with  the  author  of  each.  To  what  extent  do  they  relate 
facts,  do  you  think  ? 

7.  What  were  the  three  homes  of  the  Greeks  ?  What  were 
the  two  chief  Greek  races  ?  What  other  countries  had  used  city- 
states  ? 

8.  Name  and  explain  the  three  chief  bonds  of  unity  among 
the  Greeks.  Were  the  Greeks  united  or  separated  by  the  geog- 
raphy of  their  country  ?     By  the  temperament  of  the  people  ? 

9.  Write  a  short  paper  telling  about  an  imaginary  visit  to 
either  the  Delphian  oracle  or  to  an  Olympic  contest. 

10.  How  were  Greek  colonies  established  ?  Point  out  on  a 
map  two  of  importance  east  or  northeast  of  Greece,  two  in 
southern  Italy,  two  in  Sicily,  one  in  France.  What  important 
modern  cities  have  grown  out  of  Greek  colonies  ? 


124  THE  NEAR  EAST 

11.  Compare  Sparta  and  Athens  in  regard  to  manner  of 
living,  interests  of  the  people,  and  influence  on  Greece. 

12.  What  is  meant  to-day  by  the  word  Spartan  ?  What  was 
the  importance  to  Greece  of  the  military  methods  of  the  Spar- 
tans ?  of  the  Peloponnesian  League  ? 

13.  Trace  the  development  of  Athenian  democracy  in  the 
reforms  of  Draco,  Solon  and  Cleisthenes. 

14.  To  what  extent  is  the  early  history  of  the  vEgean  area  a 
political  history  ?  an  economic  history  ?  a  social  history  ? 


PART   II 
THE  EXPANSION  OF  THE  NATIONS,  550-146  B.C. 


A.   GREECE 

CHAPTER  V 
GREECE    AND    PERSIA 

156.  The  Period  of  Expansion,  550-146  B.C.  — Although   Succession 
there  had  been  several   small   empires   before   550   B.C.,  gj^^^j^gg 
the  great  empires  of  the  ancient  world  were  established 
during  the  four  centuries  from  550  to  146  B.C.     The  first 

of  these  was  that  of  the  Persians,  which  extended  from  the 
iEgean  Sea  to  the  Indus  River.  The  second  was  that  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  which  was  larger,  for  a  short  time, 
than  that  of  the  Persians.  The  third  was  that  of  the 
Carthaginians  in  the  west.  It  covered  most  of  the  western 
Mediterranean  basin.  The  last  and  greatest  was  that  of  the 
Romans,  which  showed  that  it  was  to  be  the  only  empire 
of  the  Mediterranean  world,  by  its  conquest,  in  146  B.C. 
of  both  Carthage  and  Greece. 

The  Geography  of  Ancient  Expansion 

157.  The  Three  Geographical  Areas  of  Ancient  Empires.   Ancient 
—  In  the  study  of  the  history  of  the  ancient  world,  we  ^™p^^.^s 

•^  .  were  in 

find  that  there  were  three  great  geographical  areas  over  Asia,  in 
which  the  empires  extended.     The  first  of  these  is  that   ^ecHtei-^^ 
inland  area  of  western  Asia,  extending  on  the  west  from  ranean 
the  great  bend  of  the  Euphrates  eastward  to  the  Indus 
River  and  the  borders  of  India.     The  second  and  the  third   Mediter 
are  simply  subdivisions  of  that  great  important  area,  the  ^^^^^^  ^^^^ 
Mediterranean  basin.     For  the  sake  of  convenience  in 
the  study  of  history,  however,  we  may  consider  the  Medi- 
terranean basin  as  divided  into  two,  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean, from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Ad-ri-at'ic  Sea  and 

127 


area  or  in 
the  western 


128 


THE   NEAR  EAST 


The  geo- 
graphical 
unity  of 
the  Medi- 
terranean 
basin. 


The  Medi- 
terranean 
basin  was 
surrounded 
by  moun- 
tains. 


The  people 
of  the 
basin  had 
common 
interests. 


from  the  Danube  to  Nubia,  and  the  western  Mediterranean, 
from  the  heel  of  Italy  west  to  Gibraltar  and  from  the 
Sahara  desert  north  almost  to  the  English  Channel. 

158.  The  Mediterranean  Basin  as  a  Whole.  —  The 
history  of  the  ancient  world  is  preeminently  the  history 
of  the  Mediterranean  basin.  We  must  think  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  of  the  basin  which  is  drained  into 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  as  a  whole,  for  it  is  a  single  geo- 
graphical area.  Not  only  does  the  great  sea  form  the 
connecting  link  between  Spain  and  Eg^-pt,  between  north- 
western Africa  and  Greece,  but  there  is  no  very  great  dif- 
ference between  the  cHmate  of  the  north  and  the  south 
shores.  In  summer  there  is  little  rain  in  Greece  and  south- 
ern Italy,  as  there  is  in  northern  Africa. 

Not  only  is  the  Mediterranean  Sea  the  largest  salt- 
water lake  in  the  world,  but  it  is  shut  in  on  almost  all  sides 
by  rather  high  mountain  ranges  that  are  not  far  inland 
from  the  shores  of  the  sea.  This  mountain  boundary  sep- 
arates the  sea  from  the  rest  of  the  world ;  although  there 
are  a  few  outlets  to  the  outside  world. ^ 

The  river  valleys  of  the  Mediterranean  basin  are  small.- 
All  of  the  people  of  the  Mediterranean  basin  therefore 
lived  within  easy  communication  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  and  looked  to  the  sea  rather  than  inland  for  trade  with 
their  neighbors,  and  for  the  interchange  of  ideas.  Four 
great  peninsulas  on  the  north  gave  some  isolation  to  the 
people  that  inhabited  them.  These  are  Asia  Minor, 
Greece,  Italy  and  Spain.     The  Carthaginian  peninsula, 


1  The  Mediterranean  basin  offers  a  few  passages  to  the  outside  world, 
on  the  northeast  to  the  Black  Sea,  on  the  east  by  the  Euphrates,  on  the 
southeast  by  the  Red  Sea,  on  the  west,  across  France  and  through  the 
strait  of  Gibraltar  to  the  Atlantic.  The  Mediterranean  basin  was  a 
mountain-rimmed  basin  with  several  good  but  easily  defended  outlets 
to  the  outside  world. 

2  Even  the  Nile  valley,  long  as  it  is,  has  a  cultivated  area  of  but  10,000 
square  miles  north  of  the  rocky  barriers  of  the  Nile  cataracts. 


THE   GEOGRAPHY  OF  ANCIENT   EXPANSION    129 

as  well  as  these  northern  peninsulas,  brought  its  people 
into  contact  with  all  Mediterranean  interests. 

159.  The  Eastern  and  Western  Mediterranean.  —  Italy,  Separate 
Sicily  and  the  Carthaginian  peninsula  almost  divide  the  east°and° 
Mediterranean  Sea  into  two  parts,  an  eastern  and  a  west-  west  Medi- 
ern.     In  fact,  during  the  period  that  we  are  now  studying,  (55^(^]_4'J3^ 
that  is,  the  four  centuries  from  the  rise  of  Persia  to  the  b.c). 
conquest  of  Greece  and  of  Carthage  by  Rome,  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  had  one  history,  the  western  Mediterranean 
another. 

During  the  first  half  of  this  period  Persia  was  in  control  Early  su- 
of  the   eastern  Mediterranean.      Then   came   Alexander,  p^^j.^^^^^^^^^ 
and  at  once  the  eastern  Mediterranean  became  Greek,  and  later  su- 
it remained  Greek  not  only  up  to  the  coming  of  the  Ro-  ^rQ^gg^g 
man  conquerors,  but  for  centuries  after.     In  fact,  long  and    Greek 
after  the  eastern  Mediterranean  was  incorporated  into  |^^^'t|Je^^^"^ 
the  Roman  world  state,  it  was  Greek  rather  than  Roman,  eastern 

Its  civihzation  was  a  combination  of  Greek  and  oriental  Mediter- 
ranean. 

elements,  and  it  never  became  Roman  in  the  sense  that 
the  West  did. 

Carthage    considered    the    western    Mediterranean    a  Early  Car- 

"  Carthaginian  lake  "  for  several  centuries.     About  200  ^^^^^^^^ 

B.C.  Rome  became  the  dominant  power  in  the  West,  and,  and  later 
after  the  conquest  of  Greece  by  Rome  in  146  B.C.,  the 

eastern   Mediterranean   as    well    during    the    next    two  in  the 

centuries  was  brought  under  Roman  sway.  Mediter- 
ranean. 

The  Persian  Empire 

160.  Empires   before   the   Persian.  —  There   had   been  Babylonian, 
numerous  empires  before  the  Persian  empire  was  estab-  g??l^/^'^^'  j 
lished  about  550  b.c.     These  early  empires  had  been  small  Assyrian 
and  were  poorly  governed  compared  with  the  later  Persian  empires, 
empire,  with  that  of  Alexander  and  with  that  of  Rome. 

The  two  very  early  empires  had  been  those  of  Sargon  of 


Roman 
supremacy 


130  THE   NEAR  EAST 

Agade  and  of  Hammurabi  whicli  extended  nominally  to 
the  Mediterranean,  but  in  reality,  as  we  have  already 
noticed,  were  confined  to  the  Tigris-Euphrates  basin. 
Then  came  the  empire  of  the  Egyptians  whicli  lasted  for 
several  centuries  and,  under  Thotmes  III,  extended  be- 
yond the  great  bend  of  the  Euphrates,  but  usually  was 
limited  to  Palestine  in  Asia.  The  Hittite  empire,  before 
the  time  of  Rameses  II,  covered  all  of  eastern  Asia  Minor 
and  Syria,  and  dominated  also  Mesopotamia  and  western 
Asia  Minor  to  the  ^gean.  The  short-lived  Assynan 
empire,  which  developed  later,  was  the  largest  of  these 
early  empires,  for  it  extended  from  the  table-land  of  I-ran', 
or  Persia,  into  Egj^pt  on  the  southwest  and  into  Asia 
Minor  on  the  northwest. 
Extent  of  161.  The    Kingdom    of    the    Medes.  —  The    Assyrian 

the  Median    gjj^pjj^P  {q\\  ^q  pieces  when  Nineveh  was  captured  by  the 
combined    armies   of   the    Babylonians    and   the    Medes 
(§  60).     The    Medes    gained    the    highlands    from    the 
Caspian  sea  west  to  the  Halys  river,  halfway  across  Asia 
Minor. 
The  Medes       The  Medes  were  a  hill  people,  unrelated  to  the  Semitic 
and     other  (^^yellers  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  and  closely  related 
European"    to  the  Persians,  another  hill  people  who  had  moved  down 
peoples.         Qj^^Q  ^jjg  north  slope  of  the  Persian  Gulf.     These  hill 
people  spoke  a  language  which  is  distantly  related  to 
►  English  and  is  connected  with  the  old  classical  language 

of  India,  the  San'scrit,  so  that  all  of  these  related  lan- 
guages, Sanscrit,  Persian,  Greek,  Latin,  French,  German, 
English  and  many  others  are  called  Indo-European.  This 
does  not  mean  that  the  Indians  and  the  Persians  belonged 
to  the  same  race  as  ours,  but  it  means  that  the  languages 
of  all  of  these  peoples  developed  from  the  same  stock,  the 
language  of  one  tribe  being  borrowed  bj^  man}^  people  of 
different  races  because  it  was  more  satisfactory  than  their 
own. 


wiuiA'/s  Er.;.  CC,  ui;. 


THE   PERSIAN    EMPIRE 


131 


162.   Cyrus,  the  Conqueror.  —  From  their  little  province   Cyms  the 
on  the  Persian  Gulf  the  Persians  reached  out  first  into  Persian 

seizes  the 

Media.      Cyrus,  the  king  of  the  Persians,  having  removed   Median 
the  king  of  Media  (550  b.c),  placed  himself  on  the  throne  ^^^o^®- 
of  the  Medes.     At  this  time  there  were  four  kingdoms 
in  the  Orient,  that  of  the  Medes,  the  kingdom  of  Lydia 
in  Asia  Minor,^  that  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  that  of  Egypt. 


Cylinder  of  Cyrus  (with  an  account  of  his  capture  of  the  city  of  Babylon, 

B.C.  538). 

Any  one  who  could  unite  these  would  have  an  empire  far 
greater  than  that  of  the  Assyrians. 

As  soon  as  Cyrus  became  king  of  Media,  he  was  called  Cra?sus  of 
upon  to  defend  his  western  boundary,  the  river  Halys.   ^^^^^^^3^^^ 
From  the  river  Halys  to  the  ^Egean  Sea  was  the  kingdom  by  Cyms. 
of    Lyd'i-a.     Croesus,    king   of    Lydia,    marched   against 
Cyrus,  expecting  to   destroy  the   Median   kingdom,  but 


1  Lydia  had  been  an  inland  kingdom  without  a  sea  coast,  but  it  had 
gradually  made  treaties  with  the  Greek  cities  of  the  ^gean  coast  or  had 
conquered  them.  Its  king  at  this  time  was  Croe'sus,  and  his  wealth 
seemed  so  vast  to  the  poor  Greeks  that  "rich  as  Croesus"  has  passed  into 
a  byword.  Croesus  was  anxious  to  rule  all  of  Asia  Minor,  so,  when  Cyrus 
became  king  of  Media,  a  greater  Persia,  Croesus  went  to  Delphi  and  con- 
sulted the  oracle.  He  was  told  that,  if  he  crossed  the  Halys  river,  he 
would  destroy  a  great  kingdom. 


132 


THE  NEAR  EAST 


Later  con- 
quests of 
Cyrus  and 
Cambyses. 


Darius  re- 
conquers 
the  revolted 
pro\'inces. 


Govern- 
ment of 
the  prov- 
inces in 
early  em- 
pires. 


Govern- 
ment 
through 
satraps, 
generals 
and  secre- 
taries. 


quickly  lost  his  own,  for  Cyrus  very  promptly  conquered 
Lydia  (546  b.c). 

Cj^rus  soon  after  brought  his  armies  into  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  valley,  and  in  538  b.c.  he  captured  the  city 
of  Babylon  after  a  prolonged  siege.  When  he  added  to 
this  Syria  and  Palestine  and  the  cities  of  Phoenicia,  Cyrus 
had  an  empire  far  larger  than  that  of  the  Assj^ians,  for 
he  had  extended  his  conquests  to  the  east  also.  His  son 
Cam-by'ses  went  down  into  Egypt,  where  he  spent  several 
years. 

163.  Darius,  the  Organizer.  —  When  Cambyses  died 
on  the  wa}'  back  from  Egypt,  his  army  supported  the 
claims  of  Da-ri'us  to  the  throne.  After  many  campaigns 
Darius  not  only  conquered  all  the  rebels,^  but  he  organized 
such  an  empire  as  the  world  had  never  seen. 

Before  this  time  the  provinces  of  the  early  empires  had 
been  ruled  by  native  princes  who  obej^ed  the  commands 
of  their  king  because  they  did  not  dare  do  other\vise,  or 
by  "  governors-general  "  who  were  generals  of  the  im- 
perial army  sent  out  to  rule  the  various  provinces.  These 
generals  were  almost  as  fond  of  revolting  as  were  the 
native  princes,  because  they  wanted  the  power  of  the 
king  and  hoped  to  take  his  place  on  the  throne. 

164.  How  Darius  Ruled  the  Persian  Empire.  —  Darius 
divided  the  Persian  empire  into  about  twenty  separate 
and  well-organized  provinces.  Over  most  of  the  provinces 
he  placed  a  governor,  called  a  '^  sa'trap,"  a  general  of  the 
army,  and  a  secretary.^     As  no  one  of  these  had  powers 


1  Darius  found  that  almost  every  province  of  the  empire  was  in  revolt 
against  him,  and  it  took  him  a  great  many  years  to  restore  order  through- 
out the  empire.  He  captured  Babylon  by  marching  along  the  dry  bed 
of  the  Euphrates,  when  the  city  was  in  the  midst  of  a  feast. 

2  Over  each  of  the  provinces  on  the  frontier,  where  there  was  danger 
of  invasion,  he  placed  a  general  of  the  army  who  had  both  military  and 
civil  authority.  These  generals  were  too  busy  to  revolt  and  too  far  away 
to  be  dangerous,  if  they  did  rebel  against  the  rule  of  the  "Great  King." 


THE   PERSIAN   EMPIRE    '  133 

except  in  his  particular  line  of  work,  there  was  small 
danger  of  any   successful  rebellions. 

In  addition  Darius  sent  out  royal  messengers  to  see  Super\asion, 
whether  the  provinces  were  being  governed  properly,  and  ^^^^^es 
some  imperial  judges.^  He  improved  the  roads,  so  that 
officials  and  the  army  could  travel  more  quickly  from  one 
part  of  the  empire  to  another.  This  Persian  empire  lasted, 
with  very  slight  changes  in  extent  of  territory  or  in  methods 
of  government,  until  it  was  conquered  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  two  centuries  after  Cyrus.  Perhaps  the  most 
interesting  of  the  works  of  Darius  was  his  attempted  con- 
quest of  Greece  (§  168).  This  was  the  beginning  of  the 
conflict  known  in  history  as  the  Persian  Wars. 

165.  Character  of  the  Persians.  —  The  Persians  bribed   Virtues 
their  way  to  success,  since  they  had  a  great  deal  of  gold.   ^J^d  vices 
Yet  '^  the  most  disgraceful  thing  in  the  world,  they  think,   Persians, 
is  to  tell  a  lie,  the  next  worse  to  owe  a  debt,  because,  among 

other  reasons,  the  debtor  is  obliged  to  tell  lies."  '^  Their 
sons  are  carefully  instructed,  from  their  fifth  to  their  twen- 
tieth year,  in  three  things  alone  —  to  ride,  to  draw  the  bow 
and  to  speak  the  truth."  ''  There  is  no  nation  which  so 
rapidly  adopts  foreign  customs  as  the  Persian.  As  soon 
as  they  hear  of  any  luxury,  they  instantly  make  it  their 
own."  This,  then,  was  the  race  that  came  into  conflict 
with  the  Greeks.  In  many  ways  they  were  a  simple, 
hardy  and  courageous  people  who  ruled  severely  a  vast 
motley  of  subject  peoples,  but  they  were  a  people  given  to 
bribery,  to  hard  drinking,  and  fond  of  luxury. 

166.  Persian  Religion.  —  Some  time  before  the  Persians  Theology 
came  into  conflict  with  the  Greeks  a  great  religious  teacher  ^"?  "^^ 

"  °  rality  of 

had  established  a  new  religion  among  them.     The  old   the  p»er- 


sians. 


^  For  some  of  the  more  central  provinces  he  sent  out  imperial  judges 
who  held  courts  at  Susa,  the  capital,  at  Babylon,  and  in  a  few  other  im- 
portant cities.  Darius  compelled  each  province  to  pay  its  own  expenses, 
and  furnish  money  for  the  imperial  treasury  as  well. 


134 


GREECE 


religion  was  a  worship  of  the  forces  of  nature  and  was 
looked  after  })y  priests  called  magi,  from  whom  we  get 
our  word  magic.  The  new  religion  was  called  Zo-ro-as'tri- 
an-istn.  It  taught  that  the  world  is  ruled  by  two  great 
Spirits,  a  greater  Spirit  of  light,  and  a  lesser  spirit  of 
darkness.  The  Persians  did  not  believe  in  images,  but 
they  worshipped  the  God  of  Light  by  prayer,  sacrifice, 
purity  and  the  use  of  the  divining  rod.  As  in  the  Egyp- 
tian Book  of  the  Dead,  a  high  moral  standard  of  living 
was  required.  In  fact,  the  Persians  are  one  of  the  earliest 
peoples  whose  religion  really  included  morality. 


The  Ionic 
cities  of 
Asia  Minor 
under 
Lydia  and 
Persia. 


The  burn- 
ing of  Sar- 
dis  and  the 
recapture  of 
the  Ionic 
cities. 


The  Persian  Wars 

167.  The  Ionic  Revolt,  500  B.C.  —  Among  the  most 
important  of  the  Greek  cities  before  the  Persian  wars  were 
the  Ionic  cities  of  Asia  Minor.  In  the  time  of  Croesus 
some  of  these  cities  had  a  much  better  culture  than  Athens 
or  any  other  city  of  Greece.  Miletus  was  alhed  with 
Lydia,  and  a  few  other  cities  were  subjects  of  Lj^dia,  pay- 
ing tribute,  but  being  left  alone  by  the  Lydians  so  long 
as  they  furnished  money.  When  Cyrus  conquered  Lydia, 
he  compelled  most  of  the  Ionic  cities  to  pay  tribute.^ 

In  500  B.C.  the  people  of  these  Ionic  cities  united  and 
revolted  against  Persian  rule.  They  marched  against 
Sar'dis,  the  capital  of  Lydia,  which  they  burned  and  im- 
mediately abandoned.  After  several  years  of  fighting 
the  Persians  captured  Miletus  and  the  other  cities,  burn- 
ing most  of  them,  killing  many  of  the  men  and  taking  as 
slaves  some  of  the  women  and  children.  In  the  first  part 
of  the  revolt,  the  expedition  against  Sardis,  the  Athenians 
had  taken  part,  for  they  were  friendly  with  the  Ionian 

1  The  Miletians  bought  a  treatj^  so  that  they  might  continue  their 
trade.  The  people  of  one  city  moved  in  a  body  to  Sar-din'i-a  rather  than 
submit  to  the  rule  of  a  Persian  despot. 


THE   PERSIAN  WARS 


135 


cities  and  were  afraid  that  Persia  would  compel  them 
to  take  back  Hippias  as  a  tyrant  (§  153).  This  inter- 
ference of  the  Athenians  in  Asiatic  affairs  angered  the 
Persians. 

168.  Attempted  Invasion  of  Greece  by  the  Persians.  —  First  at- 

Darius   immediately   made   preparations   to   punish    the  ^"^p^^^ 

Athenians,    having   a   slave   repeat    to   him   every   day :  invasion. 

"  Master,  remember  the  Athenians."     An  expedition  was  ^^^^^f  ^^- 

'         ^  ^  mands  eartn 

fitted  out  which  came  by  land  and  water  along  the  north  and  water. 


Marathon,  looking  toward  the  Sea. 


shore  of  the  ^gean  Sea.  When  the  fleet  was  badly  dam- 
aged by  a  storm  off  one  of  the  capes,  the  expedition  was 
abandoned.  Messengers  were  now  sent  by  Persia  to  the 
cities  of  Greece  demanding  earth  and  water  in  token  of 
submission.  Most  of  the  cities  of  Greece  gave  earth  and 
water,  but  Athens  and  Sparta  threw  the  messengers  into 
pits,  telling  them  to  help  themselves. 

169.  Marathon,  490  B.C.  —  Darius  now  had  a  new 
fleet  fitted  out  which  sailed  directly  across  the  ^Egean  Sea 
against  Athens.     A  hundred  thousand  soldiers  were  landed 


136 


GREECE 


Notable 
victory  of 
the  Athe- 
nians at 
Marathon. 


Significance 
of  Mara- 
thon. 


The  Athe- 
nians sup- 
port the 
naval 
policy  of 
Themis- 
tocles  and 
banish 
Aristides. 


on  the  north  shore  of  Attica,  at  Mar'a-thon,  about  twenty- 
five  miles  from  Athens.  The  Athenians  had  already  sent 
out  frantic  appeals  to  Sparta  for  help,  but  the  Spartans 
would  not  march  before  the  full  moon.  Ten  thousand 
Athenians,  supported  by  a  thousand  troops  from  Platsea, 
under  the  command  of  Mil-ti'a-des,  charging  down  the 
slope  of  Marathon  upon  the  Persian  forces,  drove  them  in 
confusion  into  their  ships. ^  Before  this  time  no  soldier, 
Greek  or  barbarian,  had  been  able  to  stand  before  the 
Persians. 

Even  the  stolid  Spartans,  coming  too  late  by  forced 
marches,  140  miles  in  three  days  over  rough  paths,  warmly 
praised  the  valor  and  the  skill  of  the  Athenians.  Every- 
where throughout  Greece  hope  revived.  The  Persian 
was  not  invincible,  after  all,  and  Greece  might  be  kept 
free. 

170,  Themistocles  and  Aristides.  —  The  effect  of  Mara- 
thon on  Athens  was  remarkable.  It  gave  the  Athenians 
new  courage.  It  made  them  confident,  determined  and 
willing  to  undergo  any  hardship  rather  than  surrender 
their  free  institutions.  Athens  was  now  compelled  to 
choose  between  two  leaders.  One  was  T he-mis' to-cles,  a 
shrewd,  unscrupulous  politician,  who  had  great  power  of 
persuasion  and  understood  both  the  great  danger  and  the 
need  of  thorough  preparation  against  the  Persians.  The 
other  was  Ar-is-ti'des,  the  Just,  a  man  so  fair-minded  that 
he  would  vote  against  his  own  interest,  a  man  who  was 
selected  to  settle  disputes  because  his  decision  would  be 
better  than  that  of  the  famous  Athenian  courts,  but  a 
man  less  able  than  Themistocles.  When  these  two  leaders 
asked  for  the  support  of  their  policies,  the  people  voted 


1  A  swift  runner  carried  the  news  of  the  great  victory  to  Athens, 
whither  the  army  returned  the  next  day,  since  the  Persians  had  immedi- 
ately set  sail  in  order  to  take  Athens  by  surprise,  before  the  defenders 
returned. 


THE  PERSIAN  WARS 


137 


in  favor  of  Themistocles,  and  they  ostracized  Aristides  so 
that  Themistocles  should  have  a  free  hand.^ 

171.  The  Naval  Policy  of  Themistocles.  —  Before  the 
battle  of  Marathon  Themistocles  had  realized  that  Athens' 
future  depended  on  her  becoming  a  great  naval  power. 
To  do  this  she  must  have  a  navy  and  a  port  that  could  be 
fortified.  The  Piraeus  was  therefore  selected  as  a  port  and 
the  fleet  was  developed  until  in  480  b.c.  Athens  had  180 
tri'remes,  a  trireme  being  a  war  vessel  with  three  banks 
of  oars. 

When  the  Persians  made  their  great  expedition  against 
Greece  in  that  year,  the  Athenians  asked  advice  of  the 
Delphic  oracle.2  They  were  told  that  the  Athenians 
would  suffer  loss  of  hfe  at  SaFa-mis,  an  island  near  Athens, 
but  that  they  should  depend  on  the  wooden  walls  for  safety. 
Themistocles  persuaded  the  Athenians  that  the  wooden 
walls  meant  the  ships,  and  that  they  would  gain  a  great 
naval  victory  at  Salamis. 

172.  The  Expedition  of  Xerxes,  480  B.C.  — -  Many 
things  had  happened  in  the  Persian  empire  in  the  ten  years 
since  the  victory  had  been  won  by  the  Greeks  at  Marathon. 
Darius  had  died  and  revolts  in  Egypt  had  delayed  the 
expedition  against  Greece.  The  new  king,  Xeroxes,  was 
much  less  able  than  his  father.  Having  gathered  a  great 
host  from  all  the  peoples  of  his  empire,  he  proceeded  to 
build  a  bridge  across  the  Hel'les-pont.  When  a  storm 
destroyed  the  first  bridge,  he  had  his  attendants  lash  the 
waters  of  the  Hellespont  to  punish  them  for  their  insub- 
ordination.    Finally,  he  crossed  into  Thrace   and   came 


Construc- 
tion of  a 
fleet  after 
Marathon. 


The  oracle 
urges  de- 
pendence 
on  their 
wooden 
walls. 


Xerxes 
gathers  a 
great  army 
and    crosses 
the  Helles- 
pont. 


1  The  story  is  told  that  one  citizen,  who  did  not  know  Aristides,  asked 
him  to  mark  a  ballot  (a  bit  of  pottery)  with  the  name  Aristides.  Aris- 
tides asked  the  citizen  what  he  had  against  Aristides.  "Nothing,"  he 
replied,  "but  I  am  tired  of  hearing  him  everywhere  called  the  Just." 

2  The  oracle  had  been  favorable  to  the  Persians  that  year,  for  the 
Greeks  seemed  to  stand  small  chance  of  success,  on' account  of  the  large 
number  of  Persian  invaders. 


138 


GREECE 


Failure  to 
make    plans 
for  defence. 


Leonidas 
and  his 
three  hun- 
dred 
Spartans. 


down  the  coast  with  his  army  and  fleet  until  he  reached 
the  mountain  range  that  divided  central  Greece  from 
northern  Greece. 

A  congress  of  men  from  most  of  the  Greek  states  had 
already  met  at  Cor'inth  to  discuss  plans  for  the  defence 
of  Greece.^  Jealousy  and  selfishness  kept  the  Greeks  from 
adopting  any  definite  plan,  but  ten  thousand  Greeks  were 
sent  to  defend  the  pass  at  Thermopylae  and  a  fleet  was 
sent  up  the  coast  to  cooperate  with  this  small  army. 

173.  Thermopylae.  —  The  pass  at  Thermopylae  is  very 
narrow,  hardly  w4de  enough  for  carts  to  pass  at  its  nar- 
rowest point,  and  for  a  distance,  the  road  follows  the  edge 
of  the  cliff  far  above  the  sea.  Here  the  ten  thousand  took 
their  stand  under  the  leadership  of  Le-on'i-das,  king  of 
Sparta,  and  300  Spartans.  Below  them  was  spread  the 
great  host  of  the  Persians,  perhaps  400,000  strong,  al- 
though He-rod 'o-tus  places  the  number  at  nearly  two 
millions.  Day  after  day  the  Persians  threw  their  brave 
and  skilled  warriors  into  the  narrow  pass,  only  to  be  driven 
back  with  great  slaughter.  Then  a  Greek  traitor  showed 
them  a  path  which  led  over  the  mountain  to  the  rear  of 
the  pass  at  Thermopylae.  The  defenders  of  the  pass  must 
retreat  or  be  trapped.  Leonidas,  the  three  hundred 
Spartans  and  seven  hundred  Pla-te'ans  refused  to  leave. 
Charging  the  Persian  army,  they  sold  their  lives  dearly 
and  w^on  immortal  fame.^ 


1  There  were  three  main  plans:  (1)  to  construct  a  wall  across  the 
isthmus  at  Corinth  so  as  to  defend  the  Peloponnesus,  and  let  the  rest  of 
Greece  go ;  (2)  to  depend  chiefly  on  the  fleet,  and,  by  destro^nng  the 
Persian  fleet,  force  Xerxes  to  retreat ;  (3)  to  stop  the  Persians  at  the  pass 
which  separates  northern  Greece  from  central  Greece. 

2  Meanwhile  the  navy  had  kept  the  Persians  in  check.  A  storm  off 
Ar-te-mis'i-imi  injured  more  than  a  third  of  the  Persian  vessels,  and,  in  the 
narrow  strait  opposite  Thermopylae  between  the  mainland  and  the  island 
of  Eu-boe'a,  a  small  fleet  like  that  of  the  Greeks  was  better  than  a  larger 
navy.  When  the  Persians  forced  the  pass  at  Thermopylae,  however, 
the  fleet  withdrew  to  Athens. 


THE   PERSIAN  WARS 


139 


174.  Salamis.  —  As  the  Persians  marched  southward,   Great  ^^c- 
the  Athenians  abandoned  their  city,  withdrawing  to  the   q^"^^°^ 
island  of  Salamis  across  from  the  port  of  Athens,  the  fleet 
Piraeus.     Here  the  fleet  of  the  Greeks  awaited  the  Per-   ^^^^  ®•^•^• 
sians.     When  Themistocles  found  that  the  Spartan  leader 
would  not  fight  voluntarily,  he  sent  word  to  the  Persian 
admiral  that  the  Greek  ships  would  slip  away  unless  he 
advanced  at  once.     The  Persians  immediately  made  an 


Bay  of  Salamis. 

attack,  overconfident  and  without  careful  plans.  In  the 
narrow  strait  between  Salamis  and  the  mainland  only  a 
small  number  of  vessels  could  fight  at  once,  and  vessel 
for  vessel,  the  Greeks  were  far  superior  to  the  Persians. 
In  fact,  the  Greeks  were  desperate,  since  the  Persians  were 
surrounding  the  island.  The  battle  raged  for  several 
hours,  King  Xerxes  watching  it  from  his  throne  on  a  prom- 
ontory overlooking  the  channel.  The  outcome  was  not 
long  in  doubt.  The  Greeks  had  the  advantage  from  the 
first,  and  the  Persian  fleet  was  almost  destroyed.  Xerxes 
at  once  made  preparations  to  return  to  Asia,^  placing  his 

1  Xerxes'  retreat  was  hastened  by  a  message  from  Themistocles  that 
the  Greeks  had  proposed  sailing  to  the  Hellespont,  for  the  purpose  of 


140 


GREECE 


Mardonius, 

completely 

defeated, 

withdraws 

from 

Greece. 


Victor>'  of 
the  Greek 
fleet  at 
Mycale 
(479). 


Invasion  of 
western 
Greek 
cities  by 
Carthage 
(480  B.C.). 


The  pro- 
gressive 
Greek  cities 
of  Asia 
Minor 
ceased  to 
develop 
under 
Persia. 


ablest  general,  Mar-do'ni-us,  in  command  of  the  army 
which  he  left  for  the  conquest  of  Greece. 

175.  Plataea,  Mycale  and  Himera.  —  The  next  spring 
(479)  Mardonius  came  down  from  his  winter  quarters 
in  northern  Greece  to  complete  the  conquest  of  the  ob- 
stinate Greek  states.  He  advanced  to  the  patriotic  httle 
city  of  Plataea,  where  he  was  met  by  the  Spartans  and 
their  allies.  Although  the  Persians  came  near  winning 
a  decisive  victory,  in  the  end  they  were  overwhelmingly 
defeated.^ 

About  the  same  time,  the  same  day  that  the  battle  of 
Plataea  was  fought,  Herodotus  tells  us,  at  Myc'a-le,  a  cape 
off  Asia  Minor,  the  Greek  fleet  met  the  Persian  vessels 
which  had  escaped  from  Salamis.  These  were  captured 
and  burned.  It  was  a  long  time,  however,  before  the 
^gean  and  Asiatic  cities  were  freed  from  Persian  rule. 

While  this  great  expedition  of  Xerxes  threatened  Greece, 
the  important  Phoenician  city  of  Carthage  had  been  attack- 
ing the  Greek  cities  of  Sicily.  The  Carthaginians  were 
defeated  at  Himera  by  Ge'lon,  tyrant  of  Syracuse  (480  b.c). 
(§  307.)  Thus  western  Greece  was  freed  from  danger 
at  the  same  time  as  Greece  proper. 

176.  The  Importance  of  the  Greek  Victory.  —  The  im- 
portance of  the  victory  of  the  Greeks  over  the  Persians 
can  be  understood  better  when  we  study  chapter  VIII 
on  the  Place  of  Greece  in  History  and  compare  the  civili- 
zation of  the  Orient  (chapter  III)  with  the  culture  of  the 

destroying  the  bridge,  but  that  they  would  not  be  able  to  do  so  for  a  few 
weeks.  In  fact,  all  of  the  Greeks  were  only  too  anxious  that  a  way  of 
retreat  should  be  left  open  to  Xerxes. 

1  Through  bad  management  the  Greeks  were  almost  shut  off  from  a 
decent  supply  of  water.  They  hesitated  to  attack,  however,  because  the 
auspices  were  not  favorable.  When  the  Persians  were  almost  in  their 
midst,  the  auspices  suddenly  became  favorable,  and  the  Peloponnesian 
soldiers  proved  their  skill  as  well  as  their  courage.  Herodotus  tries  to 
make  us  believe  that  the  Greek  loss  was  a  few  hundred  and  the  Persian 
loss  was  a  quarter  million  men. 


THE   PERSIAN  WARS  141 

Greeks.  What  the  Persian  rule  did  for  the  Asiatic  Greeks 
we  have  already  noted.  Before  Persia  gained  control  of 
western  Asia  Minor,  the  Asiatic  Greek  cities  were  the  most 
intellectual  and  the  most  progressive  of  the  Greek  world. 
Under  Persia  they  continued  their  commerce  and  seemed 
prosperous,  but  they  fell  behind  their  kinsmen  in  Greece, 
and  in  the  West,  in  arts,  science  and  general  culture.  Al- 
most without  exception  their  ablest  men  migrated  to  free 
Greece  across  the  ^Egean. 

The  national  patriotic  outburst  which  Greece  showed   The  na- 
in  her  contest  with  Persia  carried  Greece  forward  rapidly   ^^^"^^  . 

X        .y     patriotism 

to  her  Golden  Age.     Never  before  and  never  since  has  so  aroused 

brilliant  a  period  been  found  as  that  half  century  following  ^^^^^^ 

the  Persian  wars.      Certamly  Greece  under  Persia  could  stimulated 

never  have  been  greater  than  Greece  had  been  before  the  f^*'  ^^^^ra- 

.  ture  and 

Persian  wars,  and  the  world  would  have  lost  much  of  general 
that  art,  literature  and  philosophy  which  we  now  consider  culture, 
the  best  that  the  world  has  ever  seen.  What  Herodotus 
wrote  of  Athens  after  she  rid  herself  of  her  tyrants  (§153) 
might  truly  be  said  of  Greece  during  the  "  Golden  Age." 
"  It  is  manifest  that  not  in  one  but  in  every  respect  the 
right  of  free  speech  is  a  good  thing,  if  indeed  the  Athe- 
nians, so  long  as  they  were  under  their  tyrants,  were  no 
better  in  war  [and  in  culture]  than  any  of  their  neighbors, 
whereas,  so  soon  as  they  had  got  rid  of  their  tyrants  they 
became  a  long  way  the  best.  This  makes  it  plain  that,  when 
subjects,  they  were  slack  because  they  were  only  working 
for  a  master,  but,  when  liberated,  each  became  eager  to 
achieve  success  for  himself." 

177.   Summary.  —  With  the  exception  of  the  Egyptian  The  Per- 
empire,  all  the  empires  before  the  Persian  were  in  western  ^^^^  empire. 
Asia.     In  550  b.c.  there  were  four  great  kingdoms,  Media, 
Lydia,  the  new  Babylonian  kingdom  and  Egypt  that  were 
conquered  in  turn  by  Cyrus  or  by  his  son.     Cyrus  was  the 
first  "  Great  king  "  of  the  Persians,  a  hardy,  honest  and 


142  GREECE 

moral  hill  people.  When  Darius  became  king  of  the 
Persian  dominions  he  organized  them  into  a  consolidated 
empire  which  he  and  his  successors  ruled  from  his  capital, 
with  satrape,  generals  and  secretaries  in  the  provinces. 

The  Persian  empire  had  covered  all  of  western  Asia 
and  desired  to  annex  Greece.  In  490  an  expedition 
crossed  the  ^gean  Sea  against  Athens.  This  force  was 
badly  beaten  by  a  much  smaller  Athenian  army  at  Mara- 
thon, but  Greece  was  unable  to  unite  on  an}'  policy  of 
defence.  Athens,  however,  following  the  advice  of  The- 
mistocles,  prepared  a  fleet.  In  480  Xerxes  gathered  a  great 
host  from  all  of  his  western  provinces.  At  Thermopylae 
he  was  checked  by  Leonidas  and  his  Spartans.  The  fleet 
now  withdrew  to  Salamis,  where  a  great  naval  victory 
was  gained  by  the  Greeks  in  the  narrow  channel.  Xerxes 
immediately  left  Greece,  and  the  next  year  his  army  was 
beaten  at  Plat  sea  and  his  navy  at  Mycale.  Later  the 
iEgean  islands  and  the  Asiatic  cities  were  freed  from  the 
Persians.  Greece  was  now  able  to  develop  the  fine  civili- 
zation of  her  Golden  Age. 

General  References 

Fling,  Source  Book  of  Greek  History,  98-143. 

Davis,  Reading  in  Ancient  History,  I,  45-61,  130-198. 

Cotterill,  Ancient  Greece,  181-282. 

Ragozin,  The  Story  of  Media,  Babylonia  and  Persia. 

Holm,  History  of  Greece,  II,  1-89. 

Topics 

The  Ionic  Revolt  :  Botsford,  Source  Book  of  Ancient  History, 
152-161 ;  Bury,  History  of  Greece,  241-247  ;  Hohn,  History  of 
Greece,  II,  1-14. 

Marathon:  Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient  History,  I,  137-144; 
Holm,  History  of  Greece,  II,  16-24 ;  Creasy,  Decisive  Battles  of 
the  World,  chapter  I. 

Themistocles  and  Aristides:  Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient 
History,  I,  144-150 ;    Abbott,  Pericles,  22-30. 


THE   PERSIAN  WARS  143 

Studies 

1.  The  empire  of  Hammurabi.     Boscawen,  The  First  of  Em- 
pires. 

2.  How  the  Assyrians  governed    their    empire.     Winckler, 
Babylonia  and  Assyria,  289-298. 

3.  The  Rule  of  Darius.     Hall,  Ancient  History  of  the  Near 
East,  576-579. 

4.  Persian  customs.     Botsford,  Source  Book  of  Ancient  His- 
tory, 59-65. 

5.  The  Persian  empire.     Wheeler,  Alexander  the  Great,  187- 
207. 

6.  Miletus  before  the  Persian  conquests.     Holm,  History  of 
Greece,  I,  268-269,  274-278. 

7.  Miltiades.     Plutarch,  Lives. 

8.  Themistocles  and  Aristides.     Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient 
History,  I,  144-150. 

9.  Athens  and  the  Delphian  oracle  (480).    Davis,  Readings  in 
Ancient  History,  I,  151-154. 

10.  The  nations  and  their  equipment  in  Xerxes'  army.  Davis, 
Readings  in  Ancient  History,  I,  155-158. 

11.  How  Leonidas  held  the  pass  at  Thermopylae.  Davis, 
Readings  in  Ancient  History,   I,    165-175. 

12.  The  battle  of  Salamis.  Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient 
History,  1,  185-190. 

Questions 

1.  Name  the  three  great  areas  of  ancient  empires.  Tell 
why  we  must  consider  the  Mediterranean  basin  as  a  whole 
geographically.  Why  should  we  distinguish  between  the  east- 
ern and  the  western  Mediterranean,  historically  ? 

2.  Name,  in  chronological  order,  the  empires  of  the  ancient 
near  East.  Give  the  approximate  period,  the  chief  ruler  and  the 
extent  of  each. 

3.  Show  how  Cyrus  created  the  greatest  empire  up  to  his 
time  by  conquering  the  four  great  kingdoms  of  555  B.C.  (See 
map,  p.  131.) 

4.  Compare  the  rule  of  Darius  with  that  of  earlier  rulers. 
Were  not  the  Persians  more  honest,  more  religious  and  more 
humane  than  the  Babylonians  and  the  Assyrians  ? 

5.  How  did  Persian  rule  affect  Miletus  and  other  Greek  cities 
in  Asia  Minor  ?     Would  not  Persian  rule  in  Greece  have  brought 


144  GREECE 

Greece  into  closer  contact  with  the  civilization,  the  trade  and 
the  wealth  of  the  East?  Why,  then,  was  the  danger  from  Persia 
so  great  ? 

().  What  was  the  importance  of  Marathon  ?    of  Thermopylas  ? 

7.  What  was  the  effect  of  Greek  victory  over  the  Persians  on 
Greek  unity  ?  on  the  independent  spirit  of  the  Greek  cities  ? 
on  the  leadership  of  Sparta  ?    on  art  and  culture  ? 


CHAPTER  VI 

HELLENIC    GREECE 

The  Golden  Age  of  Greece  (479-431  b.c.) 

178.  Formation     of     the     Confederacy     of     Delos.  —  Athens 
Salamis  and  Plataea  had   freed  Greece,  but   the  contest  organized  a 

.  '  maritime 

With  Persia  was  by  no  means  ended.  Persian  tyrants  still  league 
held  most  of  the  islands  of  the  ^gean,  and  Persian  rulers  ^^^^^^ 
and  troops  still  held  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor. 
Again  Athens  came  to  the  front  as  the  real  leader  of 
Greece.  There  was  organized  a  maritime  confederacy 
made  up  of  Athens  and  a  few  other  coast  cities  of  Greece, 
of  the  Greek  islands  and  some  Greek  cities  in  Asia  Minor. 
Territorially  it  corresponded  rather  closely  to  the  religious 
amphictyony  of  earlier  times  (§  134).  It  was  called  the 
Delian  League,  or  Confederacy  of  Delos,  and  its  head- 
quarters were  at  the  island  of  Delos,  where  was  located 
the  shrine  of  Apollo  that  had  been  for  centuries  the  centre 
of  the  Delian   amphictyony. 

179.  Organization    and    Work   of   the    Confederacy    of  The  con- 
Delos.  —  The  Confederacy  had  a  congress  made  up  of  one  fleeroTthe 
delegate  from  each  city  in  the  Confederacy.    The  common  Confeder- 
treasury  was  in  Delos.     Each  of  the  large  cities  contributed  ^^^* 

one  or  more  ships,  the  smaller  cities  giving  a  sum  of  money. 
It  was  left  to  Aristides,  the  Just,  who  had  been  recalled  from 
exile  before  the  invasion  of  Xerxes,  to  decide  how  many 
ships  or  how  much  money  each  member  of  the  Confederacy 
should  contribute,  for  all  knew  that  Aristides  would  give 
them  a  ''  square  deal." 

Under  the  leadership  of  Ci'mon,  son  of  Miltiades,  the 
fleet   of    the    Confederacy    gradually    freed    the    ^gean 
L  145 


146 


GREECE 


Cimon  frees 
the  .^gean 
and  Asiatic 
cities  from 
Persian 
rule. 


Attempted 
secession 
of  island 
cities  gives 
Athens  ex- 
cuse to 
form  the 
Athenian 
empire. 


Athens 
develops 
her  sea 
power. 


islands  from  the  Persians.  Then  the  Confederacy 
drove  the  Persians  from  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor, 
Cimon  destroying  a  new  fleet  that  the  Persians  had 
gathered.  Within  fifteen  years  after  Salamis  the  Greeks, 
under  Athenian  leadership,  had  freed  themselves  entirely 
from  Persian  rule. 

180.  Formation  of  the  Athenian  Empire.  —  As  the 
Confederacy  of  Delos  had  been  formed  to  drive  out  the 
Persians,  and  the  Persians  had  been  defeated,  one  of  the 
island  cities  withdrew  from  the  Confederacy.  Athens 
conquered  her  and  brought  her  back  as  a  Subject  slate, 
which  was  forced  to  pay  tribute,  but  had  no  share  in  the 
affairs  of  the  league.  In  a  few  years  almost  every  city 
in  the  Confederacy,  having  rebelled  against  the  rule 
of  Athens  in  the  Confederacy,  was  made  into  a  subject 
state.  Then  the  treasury  was  removed  to  Athens  and  the 
money  was  used  to  build  up  the  Athenian  nav}^  or  to  build 
defences  or  public  buildings  in  Athens.  The  Confederacy 
of  Delos  had  become  the  Athenian  empire.  It  was  the  ex- 
perience of  Greece,  just  as  it  has  been  the  experience  of 
America,  that  a  league  or  confederation  either  fails  to  ac- 
complish very  much  or  is  changed  into  a  stronger  union. 

181.  Athens  becomes  a  Walled  Seaport.  —  Since  The- 
mistocles  showed  the  Athenians  that  their  hope  of  greatness 
lay  in  the  development  of  their  naval  strength,  Athens 
had  been  ambitious  for  sea  power.  She  had  at  first  built 
a  great  wall  around  the  city.  When  the  Spartans,  through 
jealousy,  objected,  Themistocles  went  to  Sparta  to  talk 
the  matter  over  with  the  Spartan  leaders.  Before  the 
Spartans  reahzed  that  Themistocles  was  "  playing  for 
time,"  the  walls  were  so  high  that  Athens  was  practically 
a  walled  citj'. 

The  port  of  Piraeus  was  also  defended  by  a  strong  wall 
several  miles  in  extent.  The  next  step  was  taken  by 
Per'i-cles   about   twenty-five  years   later,  when   he   built 


THE  GOLDEN  AGE  OF  GREECE 


147 


two  ^'long  walls,"  twelve  feet  thick  and  thirty  feet  high,   Fortifica- 
connecting  Athens  with  the  Piraeus.     Athens  was  now  a  p?^^g 

and  the 
long  walls. 


Piraeus  (Munychia). 

seaport  and  was  invincible,  so  long  as  she  held  control  of 
the  sea. 

182.  Importance  of  the  Athenian  Empire.  —  The  empire  How  the 
which   Athens   held   together  for   about   a   half   century  f^p^J^^^ 
included  all  of  the  islands  of  the  ^gean  and  most  of  the  united  and 
coast  cities  on  the  west,  north  and  east  shores  of  the  Q^eeks^  ^ 


148 


GREECE 


The  demo- 
cratic 
character 
and  poH- 
cies  of  the 
assembly. 


JEgesLii.  Athens  ruled  the  empire  absolutely,  no  city  being 
allowed  to  decide  any  imperial  policy.  The  empire, 
however,  did  three  things:  (1)  It  united  the  maritime 
cities  of  the  Greeks,  protecting  them  from  the  Persians 
and  other  enemies,  and  giving  them  prosperity  that  they 
had  never  had  before.  Athens  tried  also  to  build  up  a 
great  land  empire.  Naturally  this  was  opposed  by  Sparta, 
the  military  leader  of  Greece.  Athens'  attempt  therefore 
failed.  (2)  It  upheld  democracy  in  all  of  the  cities  of  the 
league.  If  any  city  was  seized  by  a  tyrant  or  by  its  aris- 
tocrats, Athens  forced  the  citizens  to  rule  themselves 
again,  through  their  assembly.  (3)  Athens  sent  out  colo- 
nies which  were  unlike  the  earlier  Greek  colonies.  Every 
colonist  still  retained  his  Athenian  citizenship  and  helped 
to  govern  the  colony  in  which  he  resided. 

183.  The     Athenian     Democracy.      The     Assembly.  — 
What   was   the   democracy   that   ruled   Athens   and   the 

Athenian  empire  ? 
It  was  made  up 
of  all  male  citi- 
zens of  Athens, 
that  is,  of  Attica, 
above  the  age  of 
thirty  years. 
These  citizens 
gave  almost  their 
entire  attention  to 
public  affairs,  for 
there  was  nothing 
the    Athenian 


Seats  in  the  Amphitheatre,  Athens. 


loved  so  well  as  to  meet  his  fellow-citizens  and  discuss 
politics  or  war,  or  listen  to  speeches  or  debates.  Even 
the  poorest  citizen  was  able  to  give  considerable  time  to 
the  assembly,  in  which  affairs  were  discussed,  for  the  great 
Pericles  saw  that  the  state  paid  for  attendance  at  the  as- 


THE  GOLDEN  AGE  OF  GREECE 


149 


sembly,  paid  for  jury  service  and  furnished  free  seats  at 
the  theatre. 

In  this  assembly  business  was  considered,  after  it  had  Powers  of 

been  proposed  by  or  brought  before  a  council  of  fifty  ofh-  *^^  f f" 

.  p         1  1-      1      M  T  11        sembly  and 

cials/  the  erection  oi  pubhc  buildings  was  debated,  the  council, 
holding  of  festivals  or  questions  connected  with  the  navy, 
the  subject  states,  the  allies  or  the  colonies  were  discussed, 
and  war  or  peace  was  decided. 


The  Bema. 

Under   the   leadership   of   men    like   Themistocles,   or  The  Athe- 
Aristides,    or   Cimon,    or   Pericles,    this   assembly   made   ^^^^  democ- 

'  ^  '  "^  racy  a 

Athens  great,  but  it  was  an  assembly  ruled  by  leaders,   popular 
As  time  went  on,  it  banished  all  of  these  leaders  except  s^vem- 

'  ^       ment  by 

Pericles,  and  most  of  them  died  in  exile.  After  the  death  leaders, 
of  Pericles,  it  was  swayed  from  one  extreme  to  another. 
At  one  time  it  decided  that  all  of  the  people  in  a  revolting 
subject  state,  Mytilene,  should  be  put  to  death,  but  the 
next  day  this  harsh  decision  was  changed.  The  assembly 
had  no  policy  but  that  of  its  leaders.  It  was  successful 
only  so  long  as  it  was  well  led. 

184.   Public  Positions  in  the   Athenian   Democracy.  — 
In  Athens  there  were  many  offices  and   a   vast   number 

*  There  were  ten  councils  of  fifty  members,  each  of  which  looked  after 
affairs  for  thirty-six  days  in  the  year,  for  which  they  were  chosen. 


150 


GREECE 


Offices 
filled  by 
election  or 
by  lot. 


The  popu- 
lar juries 
and  trials. 


Extent  and 
importance 
of  Greek 
democracy. 


The  great- 
ness of 
Pericles 
and  the 
greatness 
of  Athens 
under 
Pericles. 


of  public  positions.  Some  of  the  offices,  such  as  those 
of  the  general,  engineers  and  financial  experts,  were  filled 
by  popular  election.  The  other  offices  and  public  posi- 
tions were  filled  by  lot,  and  many  of  the  offices  could  be 
held  only  once.  They  were  therefore  "  passed  around," 
giving  public  training  to  a  great  many  men. 

Every  year  six  thousand  men  were  drawn  for  jury  ser- 
vice. One  thousand  were  held  in  reserve  and  the  rest  were 
divided  into  ten  juries  of  500  each.  When  a  case  was  to 
be  tried  before  one  of  these  juries  of  from  200  to  more 
than  a  thousand  Athenians,  the  parties  were  obliged  to 
plead  in  person.  Professionals  wrote  many  of  the  argu- 
ments, but  the  delivery,  if  not  the  writing  of  the  speeches, 
tended  to  make  the  Athenians  orators  and  debaters.  It 
can  readily  be  seen  that  this  was  a  more  popular  system 
of  administering  justice  than  our  own  jury  system.  In 
addition,  more  citizens  were  brought  actively  into  public 
affairs.  It  was  a  system,  however,  that  could  be  used  only 
by  a  people  whose  citizens  had  a  great  deal  of  leisure  and 

intelligence. 

This  was  the  democracy  that 
Athens  tried  to  make  her  allies  and 
her  subject  cities  copy.  This  was 
the  democracy  to  which  the  modern 
orator  looks  back  as  the  highest 
political  product  of  the  ancient  world. 
185.  The  Age  of  Pericles.  —  The 
leader  of  the  Athenian  assembly 
during  the  greater  part  of  the 
Golden  Age  of  Greece,  the  first  cit- 
izen of  the  first  Greek  city,  the 
"uncro\sTied  king"  of  the  Athenian 
empire,  was  Pericles.  Pericles  was  a  born  leader,  a  man 
of  considerable  ability  and  of  great  moderation ;  a  states- 
man, an  orator  and  a  patron  of  all  the  arts.     So  much 


Pericles. 


THE  GOLDEN  AGE  OF  GREECE 


151 


did  he  dominate  Athens  and  so  much  did  Athens  dominate 
Greece,  that  the  quarter  century  before  the  outbreak  of 
the  Peloponnesian  War  is  called  the  Age  of  Pericles.  In 
general,  it  was  an  age  of  peace  and  prosperity,  for  the 
fear  of  Athens  kept  the  Persians  in  the  East  and  the 
Carthaginians  in  Africa. 

The  greatness  of  Athens  may  be  sho^vn  by  a  speech 
made  by  Pericles,  not  long  before  his  death. ^ 

"Our  form  of  government  does  not  enter  into  rivalry  with  the  in- 
stitutions of  others.  We  do  not  copy  our  neighbors,  but  are  an  ex- 
ample to  them.  It  is  true  that  we  are  called  a  democracy,  for  the 
administration  is  in  the  hands  of  the  many  and  not  of  the  few.  But 
while  the  law  secures  equal  justice  to  all  alike  in  their  private  dis- 
putes, the  claim  of  excellence  is  also  recognized  ;  and  when  a  citizen 
is  in  any  way  distinguished,  he  is  preferred  to  the  public  service, 
not  as  a  matter  of  privilege,  but  as  the  reward  of  merit.  Neither 
is  poverty  a  bar,  but  a  man  may  benefit  his  country  whatever 
be  the  obscurity  of  his  condition.  .  .  .  Because  of  the  great- 
ness of  our  city,  the  fruits  of  the  whole  earth  flow  in  upon  us  ; 
so  that  we  enjoy  the  goods  of  other  countries  as  freely  as  our 
own.  Then  again  our  military  training  is  in  many  respects 
superior  to  that  of  our  adversaries.  .  .  .  We  are  lovers  of  the 
beautiful,  yet  simple  in  our  tastes,  and  we  cultivate  the  mind 
without  loss  of  manliness.  Wealth  we  employ,  not  for  talk  or 
ostentation,  but  when  there  is  a  real  use  for  it.  ...  To  sum  up  : 
I  say  that  Athens  is  the  school  of  Hellas,  and  that  the  individual 
Athenian,  in  his  own  person,  seems  to  have  the  power  of  adapt- 
ing himself  to  the  most  varied  forms  of  action  with  the  utmost 
versatility  and  grace." 

186.  The  Athens  of  Pericles.  —  Athens  was  not  only 
the  centre  of  the  Athenian  empire ;  it  was  the  centre  of 
the  Greek  world  in  the  great  half  century  following  the 
Persian  wars,  which  is  rightly  called  a  Golden  Age.  Athens 
was  the  magnet  that  attracted  every  Greek  who  excelled 
in  literature,  art  or  philosophy.  In  the  whole  Hellenic 
period,  that  is,  from  the  Persian  wars  to  the  empire  of 


The  great- 
ness of 
Athens  as 
shown  in 
the  "funeral 
oration"  of 
Pericles. 


How  Athens 
attracted 
the  ablest 
Greeks 
from  Asia, 
Greece    and 
the  West. 


1  The  so-called  Funeral  Oration,  reported  by  Thucydides. 


152 


GREECE 


The  build- 
ings of  the 
Acropolis. 


**, 

. 

m 

_^^^^^MflQ0E 

w^^^  "^^3 

kj 

^- 

..M^^Mfll 

■Il^p9  >     ij| 

HT 

? 

fH 

■  ^ 

-  i 

B 

i 

fl| 

r  . 

1 

1 

-■•■ '  ii 

■•'V  ' 

1 

^1 

«aaa 

i   iiiiyiiii  mm 

^^*^-            -^^ 

1 

J 

if--- 

-■!-_   _ . , 

-:-i.          -     ^ 

Photo  by  Geo.  F.  Howell 
Porch  of  the  Maidens  (Erectheum,  Athens.) 


Alexander,  an  Athe- 
nian was  said  to  be 
not  a  man  born  in 
Athens,  but  one  who 
fitted  into  the  intel- 
lectual atmosphere  of 
Athens.  It  is  not 
strange  then  that  the 
Athens  of  the  Hel- 
lenic period,  and  even 
of  the  Hellenistic  pe- 
riod after  Alexander, 
was  the  most  bril- 
liant intellectual  city  of  all  time,  for  she  had  the  best  of 

the  Greek  writers    and   thinkers. 
187.   The  Beautiful  Buildings  of 

Athens.  —  It  was  during  the  Age 

of     Pericles,    while    Athens     had 

plenty  of  money  in  her  treasury, 

that  Athens  constructed  the  most 

beautiful  public  buildings  in  the 

world.     Many  of   these   were   on 

the  heights  of  the  Acropolis  in  the 

centre  of  the  city.     The  approach 

to  the  Acropolis,  the  Pro-py-lce'a 

with  its  attractive  steps  and  col- 
umns, was  completed  within  five 

years.     Once   at   the  top   of   the 

Acropolis   one  faced   the  gigantic 

statue   of  A-the'na,  whose   spear- 
head served  as  a  beacon  to  ships 

approaching  the  Piraeus.    Beyond, 

at  the  left,  was  the  Er-ech-the'iim 

with  its  ''  porch  of  maidens,"  and, 

at   the  right,  the  Parthenon,  the 


PaUa.s  Athena,  Parthenon. 
(By  Phidias.) 


H 

< 
Q 

pq 
O 

w 

h- ( 
O 

o 

u 
< 

w 

o 

< 


lO 


154 


GREECE 


Buildings 
and  streets 
in  Hellenic 
Athens. 


Contrast 
between  the 
Golden  Age 
and  the  fol- 
lowing 
century. 


Lack  of 
national 
spirit  due 
to  jealousy. 


temple  of  Athena  (§  252),  the  finest  example  of  Greek 
architecture,  and  therefore  the  finest  building,  ever  con- 
structed. On  the  south  slope  of  the  Acropohs  rows  of 
circular  seats  were  placed,  forming  an  amphitheatre  in 
which  the  renowned  dramas  of  .^schylus,  Sophocles, 
Euripides  and  Aristophanes  (§§  242-244)  were  given. 

Over  to  the  west  of  the  Acropolis  is  Mars  Hill  (the 
A-re-op'a-gus)  where  the  old  men  of  Athens  for  centuries 
had  held  a  famous  court.  Here  the  apostle  Paul,  five 
centuries  later,  preached  to  the  Athenians.  Beyond  Mars 
Hill  was  the  meeting  place  of  the  Athenian  assembly 
(the  Pynx),  with  the  Be'ma  or  platform  over  next  to  the 
city  wall.  Other  public  buildings  and  statues  adorned 
the  city,  especially  after  Alexander's  time,  but  the  streets 
were  as  narrow  and  as  dirty,  and  the  houses  as  unattrac- 
tive as  those  of  many  oriental  cities.  This  was  a  splendid 
Athens,  but  it  was  neither  a  clean  city  nor  a  city  of  com- 
forts. 

The  Peloponnesian  War  (431-404  b.c.) 

188.  Causes  and  Results  of  Dissensions  in  Greece.  — 
The  Golden  Age  of  Greece  saw  comparatively  few  wars 
between  the  different  Greek  states,  but  it  was  followed  by 
a  great  conflict,  lasting  nearly  thirty  years,  which  involved 
all  Greece  and  the  ^gean  cities.  This  was  called  the 
Peloponnesian  war.  It  was  the  beginning  of  a  period  of 
strife  and  dissension  which  lasted  practically  a  century, 
and  was  ended  by  the  battle  of  Chae-ro-ne'a  (338  b.c), 
in  which  the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Philip  of 
Macedon,  united  Greece  by  making  Greece  subject  to 
Macedon. 

The  cause  of  these  dissensions  is  found  in  Greek  char- 
acter, for  the  Greek  was  jealous.  He  was  so  jealous  of 
the  success  of  his  fellows  that  he  seemed  to  take  pleasure 
in  sending  the  greatest  Greeks  into  exile  or  to  death.    Each 


THE   PELOPONNESIAN  WAR  155 

state  was  jealous  of  every  other  greater  than  itself,  and 
it  was  especially  jealous  of  its  local  independence.  The 
Greeks  never  had  any  national  spirit.  They  were  never 
united  except  in  the  face  of  great  common  danger,  or  as 
the  subject  state  of  some  conquering  power. 

189.  The  Beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  War. —  Cause:  the 
The  Peloponnesian  War  grew  out  of  the  arrogance  of  ^^^^^  °^ 
Athens  and  the  jealousy  of  the  other  states  toward  power  and 
Athens.     Sparta  was  jealous  because  Athens  had  taken   commercial 

^  "'  ^  ^  success. 

from  her  the  leadership  in  Greece.  Corinth,  ^-gi'na  and 
other  cities  were  jealous  because  Athens  had  seized  the 
commerce  which  they  formerly  had  had.  Many  other 
states  were  jealous  because  Athens  was  successful  and 
looked  after  Athens  first,  last  and  all  of  the  time.  These 
jealous  states  joined  with  the  Peloponnesian  League 
(§  149)  against  the  maritime  league  of  the  Athenian  em- 
pire and  its  allies. 

190.  Three  Incidents  of   the  First  Period  of  the  War.   The  war 
—  The  first  period  of  the  war  lasted  ten  years  (431-421).   pj^^  ^^ 
Three  incidents  only  are  worthy  of  notice.     First:   In  the   Nicias. 
third  year  of  the  war  Pericles  died,  during  a  great  plague 

in  Athens.  The  Athenian  empire  thus  lost  its  great 
leader.  Second:  At  Pylos,  on  the  west  coast  of  Greece, 
the  Athenians  cut  off  part  of  the  Spartan  force,  including 
more  than  one  hundred  Spartans.  To  the  amazement  of 
all  Hellas,  the  Spartans  surrendered.  Third:  The  Spar- 
tans tried  to  strike  at  Athens'  aUies  and  colonies  in  the 
north  ^gean  Sea,  since  Athens  depended  for  her  strength 
on  her  control  of  the  sea.  These  allies  also  furnished 
Athens  with  ships,  masts  and  ship  timbers.  In  421  a  truce 
was  arranged  between  the  Athenians  and  the  Spartans. 
This  is  called  the  Peace  of  Nicias. 

191.  The     Expedition     against     Syracuse.  —  Although   Athenian 
there  is  no  city  in  eastern  Hellas  whose  commerce  or  navy  ^g^f^^gy 
could  compare  with  that  of  Athens,  Syracuse  in  Sicily,   of  Syracuse. 


156 


GREECE 


The  Athe- 
nian navy 
hemmed  in 
at  Syracuse 
and  the 
army 
destroyed. 


Remark- 
able spirit 
and  quick 
recovery    of 
Athens. 


a  colony  of  Corinth,  had  a  large  fleet  to  protect  her  exten- 
sive trade.  Fearing  that  this  fleet  would  be  used  by  their 
enemies  and  willing  to  gain  some  of  the  trade  that  Syracuse 
had,  the  Athenians  decided  (415  B.C.)  to  send  an  expedi- 
tion against  Syracuse.  They  were  induced  to  take  this 
step  partly  by  the  eloquence  of  Al-ci-bi'a-des.  Alcibiades 
was  a  tall,  handsome  young  man  of  great  ability,  but  he 
was  selfish  and  unscrupulous.  Alcibiades  was  typically 
Greek,  for  he  had  those  charms  that  the  Greeks  especially 
desired  and  those  qualities  which  many  Greeks  possessed.^ 

Being  asked  to  return  to  Athens,  Alcibiades  went  over 
to  Sparta  and  advised  Sparta  to  send  her  ablest  general, 
Gy-lip'pus,  to  Syracuse,  and  to  occupy  a  hill  fourteen 
miles  from  Athens  which  controlled  all  of  Attica.  After 
a  severe  siege,  lasting  two  years,  the  Athenians  were 
hemmed  in  the  harbor  at  Syracuse  and  their  forces  de- 
stroyed.2  Only  seven  thousand  surrendered ;  their  gen- 
erals were  executed,  the  rest  being  sent  to  the  damp 
unhealthy  quarries  about  Syracuse.  The  Sicilian  expedi- 
tion was  the  greatest  disaster  in  Greek  history. 

192.  Renewal  of  War  by  Athens.  —  What  was  the 
effect  upon  Athens  of  the  destruction  of  her  fleet  and  the 
loss  of  40,000  men,  including  the  flower  of  her  arm}'? 
Never,  except  in  the  dark  days  before  Salamis,  when 
Athens    had     been    abandoned     to     the     Persians,    did 


1  Alcibiades  might  have  been  a  second  Themistocles.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  command  of  the  expedition  against  Syracuse,  but  on  the 
eve  of  the  departure  for  that  city,  the  statues  of  Hermes  were  mutilated 
in  Athens.  Alcibiades  was  accused  of  connection  with  this  act  of  im- 
piety and  was  told  to  return  to  Athens. 

2  The  Athenians  sent  reenforcements  to  Syracuse,  but  the  walls  of  the 
city  were  strengthened,  and  the  fleet  of  their  opponents  was  growing 
stronger  month  by  month.  As  the  Athenians  could  not  break  through  the 
walls  of  Syracuse,  they  were  in  danger  of  being  hemmed  into  the  harbor. 
Having  decided  to  return  to  Athens,  the  Athenians  then  tried  to  cut  their 
way  out  of  the  harbor.  When  this  failed,  they  attempted  to  burn  their 
ships  and  march  overland  to  a  friendly  city.     This  attempt  failed. 


THE   PELOPONNESIAN  WAR 


157 


the  Athenians  show  themselves  so  great.  Undaunted 
by  this  terrible  disaster,  Athens  recruited  a  new  army 
and  constructed  a  new  fleet.  Crippled  as  she  was,  she 
kept  up  the  fight  for  nine  years  against  Sparta  and  her 
allies,  and  the  Persians.  She  recalled  Alcibiades,  only  to 
find  that  he  deserted  her  again. 

193.  Downfall  of  Athens.  —  The  war  against  Athens 
was  now  being  carried  on  chiefly  in  the  north  ^gean. 
Attica  could  not  supply  the  city  with  food,  especially  as 
the  Spartans  destroyed  crop  after  crop.  Most  of  the 
food  supply  of  Athens  was  brought  therefore  from  the  Black 
Sea.  In  405  B.C.  the  Athenian  fleet  was  surprised  and 
captured  by  the  Spartans  at  ^-gos-pot'a-mi  in  the  Helles- 
pont.^ The  Spartans  slew  all  of  the  Athenian  prisoners. 
They  now  controlled  the  food  supply  of  Athens. 

The  capture  of  Athens  followed  quickly,  of  course. 
Athens  was  obliged  to  destroy  her  long  walls  and  the  for- 
tifications of  the  Piraeus.  She  was  forced  to  accept  the  rule 
of  ^'  thirty  tyrants,"  upheld  by  a  Spartan  garrison.  This 
was  soon  overthrown,  but  Athens  never  regained  her  polit- 
ical or  naval  supremacy.  She  still  remained,  for  several 
centuries,  the  most  distinctively  intellectual  centre  of 
the  ancient  world. 


By  the  cut- 
ting off  of 
the  food 
supply 
Athens  is 
forced  to 
give  up. 


The  hu- 
mihation 
of  Athens. 


^GOSPOTAMI   TO    CHiERONEA    (404-3^8    B.C.) 


-  The    Greek    Harshness 

They  found  ^^^  '^"^'^- 


194.   Spartan  Supremacy   (404-371  B.C.). 
cities  had  objected  to  the  rule  of  Athens,     -lx^^j  xv^^xxvt  g^y  of 
Sparta  much  more  tyrannical.     Sparta  forced  the  cities  Sparta 
that  had   had   assemblies  to   accept   the  government  of 


1  The  Athenian  assembly  helped  her  enemies  by  its  unfairness.  After 
a  great  naval  victory,  a  storm  arose.  The  Athenian  generals  were  unable 
to  collect  the  bodies  of  most  of  the  dead.  They  were  therefore  con- 
demned to  death  by  the  assembly.  If  the  body  of  a  Greek  was  not 
buried,  its  "soul"  wandered  about  forever  without  a  fixed  abode.  The 
Greek  dreaded  nothing  so  much  as  to  be  lost  at  sea. 


158 


GREECE 


The  ten 
thousand 
showed    the 
real  weak- 
ness of  the 
Persian 
empire. 


Under 
Epaminon- 
das,  Thebes 
is  the 

leading  city 
of  Greece. 


their  aristocracy.  In  some  cities  she  stationed  garrisons 
to  see  that  Spartan  orders  were  obeyed.  She  made  war 
on  Persia,  but  at  the  close  of  the  war,  she  allowed  Persia 
to  keep  the  Asiatic  Greek  cities  and  to  control  others. 
Sparta  dissolved  the  leagues  of  Greek  cities  that  had  been 
formed  for  defence.  There  was  in  this  way  less  opposition 
to  Sparta  and  also  to  Persia.  Thus  Sparta  was  not  only 
harsh,  but  she  sold  out  to  the  Persians  the  interests  of  her 
neighbors  and  friends. 

195.  The  March  of  the  ''  Ten  Thousand."  —  The  war 
with  Persia  grew  out  of  a  revolt  in  the  Persian  empire. 
A  Persian  king  died  about  the  time  that  the  Peioponnesian 
War  ended.  He  was  succeeded  by  an  elder  son,  but  a 
younger  son,  Cyrus,  a  satrap  of  Asia  Minor,  gathered  a 
force  of  Asiatics  and  Greek  ^'  soldiers  of  fortune  "  and 
marched  against  his  brother.  This  force  penetrated  al- 
most to  Babylon.  There  a  battle  was  fought  in  which 
Cyrus  was  killed.  The  ten  thousand  Greeks  then  fought 
their  way  back  through  Assyria  and  Ar-me'ni-a  to  the 
Black  Sea.  This  was  the  famous  ''  March  of  the  ten 
thousand."  It  showed  that  the  Persian  empire  was  a 
mere  shell  which  could  be  destroj^ed  by  a  good  army  under 
an  able  leader. 

196.  Sparta  yields  to  Thebes.  —  After  the  peace  with 
Persia  Sparta  found  that  her  rule  was  not  accepted  quietly 
by  her  subject  cities  in  Greece.  As  she  especially  feared 
the  Thebans,  she  seized  the  citadel  at  Thebes.  But 
Thebes  was  revenged.  She  formed  an  organization  of 
her  young  men  called  the  Sacred  Band.  Under  the  lead 
of  Pe-lop'i-das  this  band  regained  the  city  and  freed 
Thebes  from  the  Spartan  garrison.  Sparta  sent  an  army 
against  Thebes,  but  the  The])ans  had  discovered  a  new 
way  of  fighting  by  massing  their  men  several  lines  deep. 
Under  E-pam-i-non'das  the  Thebans  gained  a  complete 
victory  over  a  larger  Spartan  army  at  Leuctra  (371  B.C.). 


iEGOSPOTAMI  TO  CH^RONEA  159 

For  nine  years,  until  Epaminondas  was  killed  in  battle, 
Thebes  was  the  leading  state  of  Greece. 

197.  Philip    of    Macedon.  —  There   hes   on   the   north   Macedonia. 
shore  of  the  ^gean  Sea  a  country  called  Macedonia  or  '^.^p^^j^.^^^^ 
Macedon.     This   country  has   recently  been  the   battle- 
ground of  the  Turks,  the  Greeks,  the  Bulgarians  and  the 
Servians.     In  the  time  of  Epaminondas  Macedon  was  a 

small  hilly  province  without  a  seaport,  ruled  by  a  prince 
or  king,  and  inhabited  by  a  people  who  were  related  to 
the  Greeks  but  were  rude  and  uncultured.  A  few  years 
after  the  death  of  Epaminondas  Philip  II  became  king 
of  Macedon.  Philip  had  spent  most  of  his  boyhood  in 
Thebes,  where  he  had  learned  to  appreciate  Greek  civil- 
ization, and  he  had  seen  the  superiority  of  the  troops  of 
Thebes  over  those  of  Sparta. 

198.  What  Philip  did  for  Macedon.  —  Philip  did  three  Philip 
things  for  INIacedon.     (1)  He  reorganized  the  government  ^reated  a 

^  .  ^    ^  ^  ®  fine  army 

and  particularly  the  army.     Philip  organized  the  horse-  and  en- 
men  of  the  Macedonian  hills  into  a  fine  cavalry  corps.     He  \^^^^^^  ^^ 

'^  ^  territory. 

changed  the  infantry  of  Epaminondas  into  a  more  solid 
mass  of  soldiers,  with  long  spears,  so  that  the  spears  of 
the  men  in  the  fifth  row  projected  in  front  of  the  first  row. 
This  was  his  famous  Macedonian  phalanx,  which  was  not 
beaten  until  it  met  the  Roman  legion.  (2)  By  diplomacy 
or  force  Philip  added  to  his  kingdom  all  of  the  coast  of  the 
iEgean  from  Thermopylae  to  the  Hellespont.  He  was 
preparing  to  cross  the  Hellespont  into  Asia  Minor,  when 
he  was  murdered. 

(3)  The  third  thing  that   Philip   did  was   in   Greece.   The  Sacred 
Philip  joined  Greek  states  in  a  war  on  the  Pho'ci-ans,  who  ^^^^' 
had  taken  money  from  the  treasury  of  Apollo  at  Delphi. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  Philip  took  the  seat  which  the 
Phocians  had  had  in  the  Delphian  Amphictyonic  council. 

199.  Subjugation    of    Greece    by    Philip.  —  The    only 
city   that    had    understood    Philip's   plans    was   Athens. 


160 


GREECE 


In  spite  of 
Demos- 
thenes 
Philip  de- 
feats his 
opponents. 


Greece 

united 
under 

Macedonian 
rule. 


Importance 
of  the 
period. 


Athens  in 
the  Golden 
Age. 


At  this  time  the  leader  of  Athens  was  the  famous  orator 
De-mos'the-nes.  Demosthenes  thundered  against  PhiUp, 
in  orations  known  as  Phi-lip' pics,  but  he  was  not  able  to 
unite  Greece  against  Philip.     In  338  b.c.  Philip  won  at 

Chffir-o-ne'a  a  great  victory. 
Philip  punished  severely  sev- 
eral of  the  Greek  cities  that 
had  been  friendly  to  him,  and 
had  then  turned  against  him, 
but  he  treated  Athens  with 
respect,  for  Athens  had  fought 
him  bravely  and  openly. 

Although  he  had  conquered 
Greece,  he  looked  up  to  her, 
and  Philip  ujiited  Greece,  under 
Macedon.  Greece  never  be- 
fore had  been  united,  for  each 
state  wanted  to  do  as  it 
pleased,  and  the  only  way 
that  it  could  be  united  was  by 
an  outsider  and  by  force.  By 
some  people  the  victory  of 
Philip  was  considered  the  end 
of  Greek  history,  for  it  marked 
the  end  of  the  independence  of 
the  little  city-states. 

200.    Summary.  —  The 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries  be- 
fore Christ  were  the  glorious  classical  or  Hellenic  period 
of   Greek  history.     Some  people  consider  this  age  the 
greatest  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

Athens  made  herself  a  walled  seaport,  organized  the  Con- 
federacy of  Delos  against  Persia,  and  later  changed  the 
Confederation  into  the  Athenian  empire.  She  tried  to 
create  a  land  empire  also,  but  failed.     Athens  was  the  most 


Demosthenes. 


.3i:G0SP0TAMI   TO   CH.ERONEA 


161 


beautiful  and  the  most  distinguished  city  of  the  world  at 
this  time.  She  was  governed  by  a  popular  assembly  under 
leaders,  aided  by  a  popularly  elected  council,  which 
was  changed  every  thirty-six  days.  The  important 
offices  were  filled  by  election,  the  others  and  the  juries  by 
lot.  Athens  insisted  that  her  dependencies  and  allies 
have  similar  democratic  governments.  The  last  part  of 
the  Golden  Age  was  a  period  of  peace  and  prosperity  called 
the  Age  of  Pericles,  after  the  great  Athenian  statesman. 

In  431  began  that  great  internal  war,  called  the  Pelo-  Peiopon- 
ponnesian  war,  caused  by  the  arrogance  of  Athens  and  the  ^^^^^"  ^^^• 
jealousy  of  the  other  Greek  states.  Nothing  important 
happened  before  the  ill-fated  Sicilian  expedition,  urged  by 
the  traitor  Alcibiades,  which  ended  in  the  complete  loss 
of  the  Athenian  army  and  navy.  The  war  was  brought 
to  a  close  by  the  destruction  of  Athens'  food  supply. 

Athens  then  submitted  (304  B.C.)  and  Sparta  ruled  ^gospot- 
Greece  for  thirty  years,  selling  out  to  Persia.  Sparta  was  ^h^rone 
succeeded  by  Thebes  under  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas, 
and  Thebes  gave  way  to  Philip  of  Macedon.  Philip  had 
a  fine  arm}^  and  had  gained  a  large  kingdom.  After  the 
Sacred  war  and  Philip's  victory  at  Chseronea  (338),  Greek 
independence  came  to  an  end. 


General  References 

Webster,  Ancient  History,  211-258. 

Botsford,  A  History  of  the  Ancient  World,  182-278. 

Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient  History,  I,  199-297. 

Fling,  Source  Book  of  Greek  History,  144-295. 

Tucker,  Life  in  Ancient  Athens. 

Weller,  Athens  and  its  Monuments. 

Ferguson,  Greek  Imperia.lis?n,  38-115. 

Grant,  Greece  in  the  Age  of  Pericles. 

Abbott,  Pericles. 

Wheeler,  Alexander  the  Great,  81-207. 

Stobart,  The  Glory  that  was  Greece,  132-236. 

M 


162  GREECE 

Topics 

The  Athenian  Empire  :  Ferguson,  Greek  Imperialism^ 
65-78 ;  Cotterill,  Ancient  Greece,  283-296 ;  Zimmern,  The  Greek 
Commonwealth,  175-192. 

The  Sicilian  Expedition  :  Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient  His- 
tory, I,  226-232;  Fling,  Source  Book  of  Greek  History,  211-230; 
Plutarch,  Lives,  !' Alcibiades " ;  Holm,  History  of  Greece,  II, 
466-480. 

Philip  of  Macedon  :  Botsford,  Source  Book  of  Ancient  His- 
tory, 266-275 ;  Wheeler,  Alexander  the  Great,  1-8 ;  Plutarch, 
Lives,  "Philip." 

Studies 

1.  Aristides  and    the    Confederation    of    Delos.     Plutarch, 
Lives,  "Aristides,"  last  part. 

2.  The  port  of  Athens,  Weller,  Athens  and  its  Monuments, 
283-295. 

3.  The  Athenian  assembly.  Ferguson,  Greek  Imperialism, 
49,  57-61. 

4.  Importance  of  sea  power  to  Athens.  Zimmern,  The  Greek 
Commonwealth,  348-359. 

5.  Athens  in  the  Age  of  Pericles.  Tucker,  Life  in  Ancient 
Athens,  29-53. 

6.  The  Athenian  victory  at  Pylos.  Davis,  Readings  in  An- 
cient History,  I,  221-226. 

7.  The  tragic  defeat  at  ^gospotami.  Da\'is,  Readings  in 
Ancient  History,  I,  232-234. 

8.  Retreat  of  "the  ten  thousand"  through  the  snows  of  Ar- 
menia.    Botsford,  Source  Book  of  Ancient  History,  251-255. 

9.  Last  days  of  the  old  Greek  poUtical  system.  Wheeler, 
Alexander  the  Great,  138-148. 

10.  Epaminondas.     Davis,  Readings,  I,  276-279. 

11.  How  Demosthenes  became  an  orator.  Davis,  Readings, 
I,  286-292. 

Questions 

1.  Compare  the  maritime  league  of  Athens  (the  Delian  Con- 
federation) with  the  land  league  of  Sparta  (the  Peloponnesian 
League).  Which  lasted  longer?  Which  included  more  cities? 
Which  was  more  united?  In  which  were  the  city-states  more 
nearly  equal  ? 


^GOSPOTAMI   TO   CH^RONEA  163 

2.  Compare  in  the  same  respects  the  DeHan  Confederation 
and  the  Athenian  empire.  Explain  the  steps  by  which  the  latter 
was  organized  and  show  its  importance. 

3.  Show  how  Athens  was  famous  for  her  assembly ;  for  her 
art ;  for  her  literature,  during  this  period.  Had  the  Athenians 
more  self-government  than  we  have  to-day  ?  Name  any  other 
people  that  have  equalled  them  in  art  or  in  literature. 

4.  Write  a  short  paper  telling  about  an  imaginary  trip  from 
the  bay  at  Piraeus  between  the  long  walls  of  the  city,  to  the 
PropylsBa  and  among  the  ruins  of  the  Acropolis. 

5.  What  was  the  fault  which  the  Greeks  had  because  they 
were  independent?  Is  it  usually  true  that  we  have  the  "faults 
of  our  virtues"  ? 

6.  Explain  the  difference  between  the  three  periods  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War.  Where  was  each  fought  ?  Why  was  the 
expedition  against  Syracuse  the  turning  point  of  the  war? 

7.  Should  not  nations  as  well  as  men  specialize  in  their  busi- 
ness ?  How  far  can  a  nation  specialize  without  danger  of  being 
overwhelmed  by  its  enemies  ?  For  example,  should  it  de- 
pend on  outside  countries  for  its  supply  of  food,  for  clothing, 
for  other  necessities  ?  What  was  the  lesson  taught  by  Athens  ? 
by  the  Southern  Confederacy  in  the  Civil  War  ?  Compare 
Athens  with  Great  Britain  to-day  in  regard  to  economic  depend- 
ence on  outsiders. 

8.  What  three  things  did  Philip  do  for  Macedon  ?  Was  Philip 
a  great  man  ?  Why  was  unity  forced  upon  Greece  by  Macedon 
rather  than  developed  by  Greece  herself  ?  Was  Philip  or  was 
Demosthenes  right  ?     Why  ? 


CHAPTER   VII 


ALEXANDER:    THE    HELLENISTIC    AGE 
The  Empire  of  Alexander 


Charac- 
teristics of 
the  young 
king  of 
Macedon. 


Stories  of 
his  youth. 


201.  The  Youth  of  Alexander.  —  Philip  of  Macedon 
had  not  only  made  his  little  principality  into  a  great 
kingdom,    and   united    Greece    under    Macedon,   but   he 

had  started  to  drive  Persia 
out  of  Asia  Minor.  At  his 
death  he  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Alexander,  who  was 
only  twenty  years  of  age. 
Alexander  was  an  impetuous 
youth  of  magnificent  phy- 
sique. His  mind  was  quick 
and  capable  and  he  had  been 
trained  by  able  teachers,  by 
far  the  greatest  of  whom  was 
the  philosopher  Ar-is-to'tle. 
He  excelled  in  athletic  sports 
and  was  willing  to  eat  plain 
food  and  undergo  the  hard- 
ships of  a  soldier's  life. 

As  a  boy  Alexander  had 
won  the  admiration  of  Persian 
ambassadors  by  his  brilliant  conversation  and  his  keen 
questions.  One  day  a  magnificent  horse,  Bu-ceph'a-lus, 
was  brought  to  Pliilip's  court.  None  of  the  courtiers  was 
able  to  manage  him.  When  Alexander  criticized  them,  he 
was  told  to  see  what  he  could  do.     He  immediately  turned 

164 


Alexander. 


THE   EMPIRE   OF   ALEXANDER 


165 


the  horse  toward  the  sun,  having  noticed  that  he  was  afraid 
of  his  shadow,  and  sprang  on  his  back.  He  then  gave  the 
high-spirited  steed  a  chance  to  run.  On  his  return  his 
father  embraced  the  lad,  saying,  ''  0,  my  son  !  look  thee 
out  a  kingdom  equal  to  and  worthy  of  thyself,  for  Mace- 
donia is  too  little  for  thee." 

202.  Alexander  Makes  himself  Master  of  Greece.  — 
Greece  had  yielded  to  Philip,  the  crafty  diplomat  and  able 
general.  It  had  no  intention  of  submitting  to  a  boy, 
especially  a  boy  whom  his  enemies  in  Macedon  did  not 
recognize  as  king.  Alexander  seemed  to  enjoy  the  troubles 
on  every  hand.  With  amazing  activity  he  subdued  the 
rebellious  Macedonian  nobles  and  marched  into  Greece, 
which  he  pacified  within  a  few  Aveeks.  As  soon  as  he  went 
north,  Greece  revolted  again,  and  Alexander  suppressed 
the  revolts  with  violence,  destroying  Thebes.^  Then 
Alexander  became  dissatisfied  with  his  father's  plan  of 
simply  invading  Asia  Minor.  He  made  preparations  to 
conquer  the  whole  Persian  empire. 

203.  Alexander's  Conquest  of  Asia  Minor.  —  In  334  B.C. 
Alexander  crossed  into  Asia.  The  Persian  satraps  of  Asia 
Minor  tried  to  stop  him  at  the  river  Gra-ni'cus  near  the  site 
of  Troy.  Alexander  depended  somewhat  on  his  Mace- 
donian phalanx,  but  chiefly  on  his  cavalry,  which  he 
really  led  in  person.     Several  times  his  life  was  in  great 


Alexander 
puts  down 
rebellions 
in  Macedon 
and  along 
the  Danube. 


Alexander 
wins  two 
of  his 
hardest 
battles. 


•  1  Alexander  was  called  north  by  rebellions  on  the  frontier  along  the 
Danube.  He  marched  rapidly  northward,  and  no  word  was  heard  of  him 
in  Greece  for  many  months.  Immediately  half  of  Greece  took  advan- 
tage of  his  absence,  and  city  after  city  proclaimed  its  independence. 
As  the  tribes  along  the  Danube  had  been  subdued  easily,  Alexander 
astounded  the  Greeks  by  his  sudden  appearance.  A  few  swaft  marches, 
a  few  short  sieges,  and  Greece  north  of  the  Peloponnesus  was  once  more 
at  his  feet.  To  punish  Thebes,  the  treacherous,  the  city  where  his  father 
had  spent  his  boyhood,  he  destroyed  the  city  and  sold  the  people  into 
slavery.  Thus  was  Thebes  treated  as  she  had  treated  her  own  traitorous 
allies.  With  this  terrible  warning  of  the  treatment  that  rebels  might 
expect  Alexander  started  on  his  campaign  against  Persia. 


166 


GREECE 


Alexander 
destroys 
Tyre  for 
comnieroial 
reasons. 


Alexander 
founds 
Alexandria 
and  believes 
that  he  is 
a  god. 


danger  and  the  battle  was  nearly  lost,  but,  in  the  end,  as 
was  always  the  case,  Alexander  won  a  complete  victory. 
He  crossed  Asia  Minor  slowly,  keeping  in  touch  with 
Greece,  for  fear  that  Greece  might  revolt  again.  At 
Gordium  he  w^as  asked  to  untie  the  famous  Gordian  knot, 
but  with  characteristic  directness  cut  it  with  his  sword. 
As  he  approached  Syria,  he  was  met  by  the  Persian  king 
and  a  great  army  at  Is'sus,  where  the  mountains  came 
down  close  to  the  sea.  In  this  narrow  pass  Alexander  won 
a  second  victory  by  charging  with  his  cavalry  into  the 
camp  of  the  Great  King.  The  way  was  now  open  down 
the  Euphrates  or  along  the  Mediterranean  coast.  He 
chose  the  latter. 

204.  Alexander  Destroys  Tyre  and  Founds  Alexandria. 
—  For  two  centuries  the  island  of  Tyre  had  been  under 
Persian  rule.  In  return  for  vessels  in  time  of  war  Persia 
had  restored  Tyre  to  the  position  she  had  held  for  several 
centuries  before  Cyrus  the  Conqueror,  —  the  greatest 
commercial  city  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean.  This  city 
which  Nebuchadnezzar  had  besieged  unsuccessfully  for 
thirteen  years,  Alexander,  with  his  new  siege  machines, 
captured  in  seven  months.  He  destroyed  the  city  utterly, 
not  simply  to  prevent  Tyre  from  furnishing  a  fleet  to  the 
Persians,  for  Alexander  did  not  expect  to  leave  a  Persian 
empire,  but  for  the  reason  that  Alexander  wanted  to  con- 
trol the  trade  between  the  East  and  the  West. 

When  Egypt  welcomed  him  as  her  deliverer  from  the 
Persians,  Alexander  founded,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile, 
a  city  which  he  called  Alexandria.  This  city  gained  most 
of  the  trade  that  had  formerly  belonged  to  Tyr(\  In 
Egypt  Alexander  consulted  the  temple  of  Am'on.  He 
was  told  that  he  was  a  god  and  that  he  would  conquer  the 
world.  Before  this  Alexander  had  believed  that  he  would 
do  the  latter ;  now  he  sometimes  acted  as  if  he  might  be 
the  former.     He  lost  much  of  the  personal  charm  that  he 


5  ^ 


THE   EMPIRE   OF  ALEXANDER 


167 


had  had,  although  he  retained  all  of  his  former  arro- 
gance. 

205.  Alexander's  Conquests  of  Persia.  —  Alexander 
now  turned  his  attention  to  Persia.  He  was  met  again 
by  the  Persian  king  Darius,  with  a  much  larger  army,  at 
Ar-he'la  near  Nineveh.  When  Darius  fled  to  escape  the 
impetuous  attack  of  Alexander's  cavalry,  the  retreat  be- 
came a  rout,  and  the  whole  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  lay 
open  before  the  conqueror.  Without  further  difficulty 
he  occupied  Babylon,  Su'sa  and  Per-sep'o-lis,  cities  of  very 
great  wealth. ^  Alexander  went  east  as  far  as  the  Indus 
River,  but  his  troops  would  go  no  farther. 

In  323  he  died  after  a  revel.  He  was  only  thirty-three 
years  of  age  at  the  time,  but  he  had  lived  a  very  full  and 
a  very  hard  life.  Tradition  relates  that  he  died  sighing 
for  more  worlds  to  conquer.  At  first  thought  it  might  seem 
as  though  Alexander  was  only  a  conqueror,  and  a  conqueror 
whose  work  did  not  last.     He  was  much  more  than  that. 

206.  Alexander's  Work  in  Uniting  West  and  East.  — 
Alexander  married  the  daughter  of  Darius  III  as  well 
as  daughters  of  several  other  oriental,  princes.  He  per- 
suaded or  forced  most  of  his  generals  to  take  oriental  wives 
and  he  induced  many  of  his  soldiers  to  marry  and  settle 
down  in  the  East.  His  idea  was  of  course  to  break  down 
completely  the  barriers  between  the  East  and  the  West, 


Arbela,  and 

eastern 

conquests. 


Death  of 
Alexander 
(323  B.C.). 


Alexander 
tries  to 
weld  East 
and  West 
together 
by  mar- 
riages. 


1  Alexander  pursued  Darius  across  the  plateau  of  Iran  and  the  desert 
wastes  farther  east  until  one  of  Darius'  satraps  assassinated  the  unhappy 
fugitive.  Alexander  would  gladly  have  forgiven  his  enemy.  He  soon 
after  married  the  daughter  of  Darius  so  that  he  might  be  considered  the 
regular  successor  of  the  last  Persian  king.  Alexander  spent  several 
years  in  military  and  exploring  expeditions  in  the  northeastern  provinces 
of  the  Persian  empire.  He  wished  to  push  on  into  India,  a  land  of  great 
wealth  and  of  an  ancient  civilization  ;  but  his  troops  rebelled  and  refused 
to  go  beyond  the  In'dus  River.  In  fact,  Alexander  almost  ended  his  career 
at  this  time,  for  he  was  severely  wounded  while  storming  a  town,  having 
exposed  himself  in  the  same  reckless  fashion  as  he  had  on  the  Granicus 
and  a  score  of  other  times  since. 


168 


GREECE 


The  Greek 
cities  in  the 
East    were 
cities  of 
Greek  cul- 
ture. 


Limitation 
of  Greek 
markets 
before 
Alexander. 


Alexander 
made  the 
Greek 
world  rich 
through 
new  trade 
oppor- 
tunities. 


for,  if  the  social  barrier  were  broken  clown,  none  of  the 
others  could  be  kept  up. 

Alexander  founded  not  only  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  but  he  founded  several  other 
Greek  cities,  usually  called  Alexandrias,  in  Asia  Minor, 
in  Syria,  in  Babylonia,  in  Persia  and  in  the  deserts  or 
plateaus  still  farther  East.  To  each  of  these  cities  he 
brought  a  colony  of  Greeks,  who  spoke  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, worshipped  Greek  gods,  read  Greek  literature  and 
kept  Greek  ideals  in  art.  These  cities  and  the  Greek 
quarters  in  the  oriental  cities  were  centres  of  Greek  civil- 
ization from  which  Greek  culture  and  learning  spread  to 
other  cities,  so  that  the  East  became  partly  Hel'len-ized. 
To  be  sure,  this  Hel-len-i-za'tion  was  very  incomplete 
in  the  real  East,  but  along  the  border  of  the  Mediterranean 
there  was  a  complete  blending  of  the  civilizations  of  the 
Orient  and  of  Greece.  The  wealth  and  luxury  of  the 
Orient  also  invaded  Greece. 

207.  Commercial  Importance  of  Alexander's  Conquests. 
—  Alexander  opened  up  new  markets  for  Greece.  Greece 
was  poor.  Her  valleys  were  small  and  her  agricultural 
products  were  hmited.  Most  of  her  wealth  had  always 
come  from  trade.  After  the  downfall  of  Athens  (§  193) 
this  trade  was  much  more  Hmited.  The  goods  manu- 
factured by  Greek  slaves  were  sold  in  a  very  much  re- 
stricted market  for  three-quarters  of  a  century  after 
^gospotami. 

Alexander  opened  all  of  the  markets  of  the  East  to  Greek 
products  and  to  Greek  traders.  By  the  destruction  of 
Tyre  he  opened  the  way  for  a  great  commerce,  not  only 
to  Alexandria  in  Egj-pt,  but  to  Athens,  to  Corinth,  to 
Rhodes  and  afterward  to  Antioch.  Greeks  controlled  the 
trade  of  all  of  these  great  cities  and  the  Greeks  became 
rich  and  powerful  through  improved  business  opportuni- 
.  ties. 


THE   HELLENISTIC  AGE  169 

The  Hellenistic  Age 

208.  Comparison     of     the     Hellenic     and     Hellenistic  Importance 
Periods.  —  The  name   Hel-len-is'tic  Age  is  given  to  the  |^^  thl^^^^ 
period  from  the  death  of  Alexander  in  323  b.c.  to  the  con-  Hellenic 
quest  of  Greece  by  Rome  in  146  b.c.      In  the   Hellenic  gl^,^ 
period  from  the  Persian  Wars  to  the  subjugation  of  Greece 

by  Phihp  at  Chseronea  (338  b.c.)  Greek  culture  had  been 
centred  at  Athens.  From  the  whole  Greek  world  the 
greatest  of  the  Greeks  had  been  drawn  to  the  city  by  the 
Acropolis.  No  other  city  could  compare  in  culture  with 
Athens  during  the  Age  of  Pericles  or  during  the  century 
of  dissension  following  the  death  of  that  great  statesman. 

209.  Importance    of    the    Hellenistic    Period.  —  After   The  spread 
Alexander's    time,    things    were    different.     Athens    was   ^^    Hellenic 

'  "  ^  culture  a 

still  great,  but  she  no  longer  monopolized  the  culture  or  great  gain 
the  learning  of  the  Greek  world.  Instead  of  being  cen- 
tred in  one  city,  Greek  civilization  was  spread  thinly 
over  a  great  area.  It  is  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
the  Greek  language  and  hterature  of  Greek  Syria,  for 
example,  would  be  the  pure  language  of  the  beautiful 
drama  of  Athens.  Greek  culture  could  not  very  well  he  both 
concentrated  and  diffused  at  the  same  time.  What  it  lost  in 
concentration y  the  world  gained  by  its  diffusion.  It  was  better 
that  the  whole  eastern  Mediterranean  world  should  have 
a  semi-Greek  culture  than  that  little  Greece  should  have 
a  more  highly  developed  culture  centred  in  one  city.  It 
was  better  that  a  score  of  millions  should  be  raised  consid- 
erably in  the  scale  of  civilization  by  the  diffusion  of  Greek 
culture  than  that  a  few  hundred  thousand  should  enjoy 
a  high  civiUzation  by  keeping  away  from  the  world  of 
the  foreigner.  History  owes  much  to  the  high  culture  of 
the  Hellenic  Age.  It  owes  more  to  the  diffusion  of  Greek 
culture  in  the  Hellenistic  -period.^ 

^  Compare  with  the  period  of  colonization,  §§  139-144. 


to  the 
world. 


170 


GREECE 


Problem  of 
keeping  the 
empire 
intact. 


Areas  of 
the  three 
permanent 
kingdoms. 


Different 
pohcies  in 
Syria  and 
in  Egypt. 


210.  The  Division  of  Alexander's  Empire. — When 
Alexander  died  so  untimely  a  death  at  the  early  age  of 
thirty-three,  it  was  said  that  he  left  his  empire  ''  to  the 
strongest."  He  left  no  heir,  and  none  of  his  generals  was 
strong  enough,  by  gaining  the  allegiance  of  the  others,  to 
keep  the  empire  together.  After  a  number  of  years  spent 
in  quarrelling  over  the  division  of  his  empire,  a  great  battle 
was  fought  at  Ip'siis  (301  b.c.)  between  his  generals. 
As  a  result  of  this  battle  Alexander's  empire  was  divided 
into  three  kingdoms  which  survived  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury, until  Rome  conquered  each  in  turn  during  the  second 
and  first  centuries  before  Christ. 

211,  The  Three  Kingdoms  of  Alexander's  Successors.^ 
—  The  first  kingdom  was  that  of  Macedonia,  which 
included  Macedon  and  Greece.  The  second  was  that  of 
the  Se-leu'cids,  which  temporarily  stretched  from  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  into  the  remote  East,  but  really  in- 
cluded only  Syria  and  Babylonia.  The  third  was  that 
of  the  Ptolemys  (Tol'mys)  who  held  Eg^^pt  and  quarrelled 
with  the  Seleucids  for  the  possession  of  Palestine  and  the 
Phoenician  cities. 

It  is  unnecessary  for  us  to  follow  the  fortunes  of  these 
*' Alexandrian "  kingdoms,  but  we  should  notice  this 
fact.  It  was  through  them  that  Greek  learning  and  cul- 
ture were  kept  alive  in  the  East.  The  Seleucids  indeed 
followed  Alexander's  custom  of  planting  Greek  cities  in 
different  places.  The  Ptolemys  on  the  contrary  were 
content  to  concentrate  in  Alexandria  the  culture  of 
EgjTDt.  For  this  reason  they  did  not  Hellenize  Egypt  as 
Syria,  and  even  Palestine,  was  Hellenized,  but  they  made 
Alexandria  the  most  learned  and  most  famous  city  of  the 
Hellenistic  Age. 

^  Originally  there  were  four  kingdoms,  that  of  Asia  Minor  and  Thrace 
soon  being  destroyed  by  invasions  of  Celts  from  the  north. 


CENTRES   OF   HELLENISTIC  CULTURE 


171 


commerce 
of  Athens. 


Centres  of  Hellenistic  Culture 

212.  The  Hellenistic  Cities  of  the  jEgean.  Athens.  —   Wealth, 
If  we  glance  for  a  moment  at  the  cities  of  this  Plellenistic  '^^f^ty' 

•     1  1     11  11-  culture  and 

period,  we  shall  see  that  they  are  not  to  be  despised. 
First,  there  is  Athens,  larger  and  far  more  attractive  than 
in  the  time  of  Pericles.  To  the  public  buildings  of  the 
Golden  Age  have  been  added  theatres,  porticos  and  in- 
numerable statues.  The  streets  are  cleaner  and  the  houses 
are  more  beautiful,  for  wealth  has  poured  in  from  the  East, 
and  the  citizens  no  longer  spend  their  entire  time  discuss- 
ing public  affairs.  The  Piraeus  is  full  of  ships  from  every 
quarter  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  shops  of  this  seaport 
being  scarcely  less  busy  than  in  the  palmy  days  of  the 


Altar  of  Zeus,  Pergamum. 

Athenian  empire.  As  the  Athenian  schools  are  the  most 
famous  in  the  world,  no  man  considers  his  education 
complete  until  he  has  visited  Athens,  and,  if  possible, 
studied  under  her  teachers. 

213.  Pergamum.  —  Across   the   ^Egean   and   south   of  The  ornate 
the  site  of  ancient  Troy  there  has  arisen  a  little  kingdom 
called  Per'ga-mum.     In  the  city  of  the  same  name  there 
was  considerable  interest  in  art  and  in  literature.     The  peo- 


art  of 
Pergamum. 


172 


r.RKECE 


Rhodes' 
leadership 
in  com- 
mercial 
regulation 
and  in 
colossal 
art. 


pie  were  famous  for  the  preparation  of  skins,  to  be  used  in 
writing.  We  use  such  skins  now  chiefly  for  graduation 
diplomas,  but  we  still  call  the  sheets  of  skin  parchment,  af- 
ter Pergamum.  At  Pergamum  there  was  a  famous  art 
school  and  the  city  was  distinguished  for  its  rather  ornate 
art.  On  the  height  above  the  market  place  was  a  huge 
altar  of  Zeus  surrounded  by  a  colonnade  of  giants  nine 
feet  high. 

214.  Rhodes.  -^  The  third  ^gean  centre  of  culture  and 
art  was  Rhodes,  which  was  situated  on  an  island  between 

Crete  and  Asia 
Minor.  The  Rho- 
dians  were  very  suc- 
cessful traders,  and 
they  made  laws  for 
international  com- 
merce which  were 
followed  by  all  of 
the  civilized  people 
of  the  eastern  Medi- 
terranean.^ At  the 
entrance  to  the  har- 
bor of  Rhodes  was  a 
huge  bronze  statue, 
the  Colossus  of 
Rhodes,  under  which 
the  ships  sailed. 

Laocoon.  ^  p 

The  people  of 
Rhodes  were  more  fond  of  colossal  art  (§  256),  than  of 
the  simpler  statuary  of  Per-i-cle'an  Athens.     The  statue 


^fr-yJI^^^k 

■ 

■k'*/^^         ^I^^H 

^^^^^^1 

H^^^^^H 

^^^^?SS^^I^^  ^''j 

QHH 

H^WIi^i/!^ 

m^^ 

S^fl 

W^k, 

p^^^^B 

^BBk'^ 

■'...-i3 

»  So  just  and  so  fair  were  the  Rhodians  in  carrying  on  trade,  that, 
when  an  earthquake  destroyed  part  of  the  city  (227  B.C.),  the  merchants 
from  all  parts  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean  contributed  for  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  city,  for  the  prosperity  of  Rhodes  meant  the  success  of  those 
cities  with  which  she  traded. 


CENTRES  OF  HELLENISTIC   CULTURE         173 


of  La-oc'o-on  and  his  sons  is  a  good  example  of  the  art  of 
Rhodes. 

215.  Syria  and  Palestine.  —  In  Syria  and  Palestine  the 
oriental  civilization  was  now  changed  by  the  addition  of 
Greek  culture.  The  official  language  became  Greek. 
Greek  art  was  their  model,  Greek  philosophy  w^as  studied 
by  them.  Greek  literature  became  theirs.  The  Greek 
religion  was  urged  upon  them,  and  was  accepted  by  most 
of  the  peoples  of  the  coast.  The  capital  of  Syria,  Antioch, 
was  the  most  oriental  of  the  Hellenistic  cities.^ 

The  Jews  were  the  chief  people  that  objected  to  accept- 
ing Greek  gods  and  Greek  rulers.  They  had  their  own 
religious  belief  and  they  refused  to  give  it  up.  In  order 
that  they  might  have  an  independent  kingdom  in  which 
they  should  have  their  own  religion,  they  supported  the 
Mac'ca-bees  in  a  general  revolution  against  the  Greek 
kings.  After  this  revolution  their  religion  was  left  undis- 
turbed. 

216.  Alexandria  and  Its  Commerce.  —  The  most  famous 
and  the  most  influential  of  the  Greek  cities  of  the  Hellen- 
istic period  was  Alexandria.  Alexandria  was  located  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Nile.  It  had  two  fine  harbors  formed 
by  building  a  dike  from  the  city  to  the  island  of  Pha'ros, 
about  a  mile  from  the  mainland.  At  the  entrance  to  the 
eastern  harbor  was  that  great  lighthouse,  higher  than  the 
pyramids,  which  the  ancients  considered  one  of  the 
seven  wonders  of  the  world.  The  western  harbor  was 
connected  by  canal  with  Lake  Morris,  the  Nile  and  the 
Red  Sea.  This  gave  Alexandria  direct  water  communi- 
cation with  the  East,  and  was  an  important  reason  why 

^  The  capital  of  the  kiiigdoru  of  the  Seleucids  was  Antioch,  in  north- 
western Syria.  On  account  of  its  location,  it  had  extensive  commerce 
with  Babylonia  and  was  the  most  oriental  of  the  Greek  cities,  excelling 
most  others  in  wealth  and  luxury.  Through  Antioch  the  West  became 
well  acquainted  with  those  eastern  customs  that  broTight  to  Rome  the 
superstition  and  luxury  of  the  "effete  East." 


Addition 
of  Hellen- 
istic culture 
to    that    of 
Babylon 
and  Egypt. 


The  Jews 
demanded 
religious 
and  politi- 
cal inde- 
pendence. 


Alexan- 
dria's har- 
bors, water 
routes  and 
commerce. 


174 


GREECE 


Alexan- 
dria's 

library    and 
copyists. 


The  mu- 
seum, 

science  and 
literature 
in  Alexan- 
dria. 


Alexandria  had  more  commerce  and  greater  wealth  than 
any  other  Hellenistic  cit}'. 

217.  Alexandria  as  an  Intellectual  Centre.  —  Alexandria 
used  her  wealth,  as  Athens  did  in  the  fifth  century  before 
Christ,  to  attract  scholars  in  order  that  the  city  might 
be  a  seat  of  learning  and  a  centre  of  culture.  The  Ptolemys 
gathered  the  greatest  library  of  the  ancient  world,  num- 
bering more  than  a  half  miUion  manuscripts.  A  vast 
army  of  copyists  was  kept  busy  copying  old  manuscripts. 
Great  sums  were  paid  for  old  and  valuable  documents. 
It  is  said  that  some  of  the  manuscripts  of  the  famous  Greek 
dramatists  were  borrowed  from  Athens,  the  sum  of  100 
talents  of  silver  being  deposited  as  surety  for  the  return 
of  the  papers.  That  sum  was  forfeited  and  the  manu- 
scripts were  kept  in  Alexandria.  The  oldest  manuscript 
that  we  have  of  the  Old  Testament  is  in  Greek  and  was 
made  by  the  Alexandrian  copyists. 

At  Alexandria  was  the  Mu-se'um,  practically  a  uni- 
versity at  which  gathered  some  of  the  greatest  scholars 
and  teachers  from  the  whole  Greek  world,  with  tens  of 
thousands  of  pupils.  In  science  Alexandria  was  pre- 
eminent. The  best-known  names  in  ancient  times  among 
mathematicians,  geographers  and  other  scientists  were 
those  of  Alexandrian  scholars  (§§  265-267).  Although  her 
Hterature  was  the  literature  of  imitators  and  copyists, 
it  had  more  influence  on  the  literature  of  Rome  than  had 
the  literature  of  classical  Greece. 


Greece  after  Alexander 


Greece  was 
drained  of 
her  ablest 
men,  but 
not  of  her 
troubles. 


218.  The  Condition  of  Greece  after  Alexander.  — 
After  the  time  of  Alexander,  the  history  of  Greece  proper 
contains  little  of  value  for  us.  So  many  of  her  famous 
men  were  d^a^vn  away  as  generals  or  statesmen  or  scholars, 
and  so  manv  of  her  humbler  citizens  went  forth  to  found 


GREECE   AFTER  ALEXANDER  175 

Greek  cities  in  the  East,  that  Greece  had  less  material 
with  which  to  estabhsh  a  reputation  for  herself  in  the 
Hellenistic  period  than  in  the  Hellenic  period  which  pre- 
ceded it.  There  was,  however,  the  same  petty  jealousy 
between  the  states,  and,  in  spite  of  the  attempted  rule  of 
Macedon,  there  was  much  warfare  among  the  Greek  cities. 
There  was  much  more  wealth  and  luxury  among  the  rich 
than  there  had  been  before  Alexander,  but  poverty  was 
also  more  prominent.  There  was  more  strife  between 
rich  and  poor,  since  warfare  between  the  cities  was  limited, 
and  the  cruelty  that  had  been  sho^vn  to  enemies  outside 
of  the  city  was  now  visited  more  often  on  domestic  enemies. 

219.  The  ^tolian  League.  —  Two   leagues   were  organ-  The  west- 
ized  by  the  cities  in  this  period.     These  were  the  A-chce'an  ^J",  ?j^^^^ 
League  a  d  the  M-to'li-an  League.     The  Mtolian  League   tribes. 
was  a  union  of  tribes,  not  cities,  of  western  Greece.     They 
banded  together  to  keep  out  the  Gauls,  who  overran  Asia 

Minor  about  this  time,  and  tried  to  occupy  Greece.  They 
were  little  more  than  bands  of  pirates  and  bandits  during 
the  last  century  of  Greek  history. 

220.  The  Achaean  League.  —  Like  the  Confederacy  of  The  im- 
Delos,  the  Achcean  League  grew  out  of  an  old  religious  P^^^f^*  ^^* 
association.     It  was  made  up  of  a  number  of  cities  in  Achaean 
southern  and  central  Greece,  each  of  which  had  a  vote  ^^^s^^- 

in  the  federal  council  of  the  League.  For  nearly  a  half 
century  the  League  maintained  the  freedom  of  its  cities 
from  Macedonian  rule.  Then  they  attempted  to  force 
Sparta  into  the  League.  When  it  seemed  possible  that 
Sparta  might  defeat  them,  A-ra'tus,  their  able  but  un- 
scrupulous leader,  called  upon  Macedon.  That  was  the 
end  of  real  independence  for  the  cities  of  the  League,  but 
they  held  the  League  together  for  nearly  a  century  longer. 
The  Achaean  League  was  the  best  that  Greece  produced. 
In  many  ways  the  union  was  not  unlike  the  Confederation 
in  the  United  States  at  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary 


17(3 


GREECE 


War  be- 
tween the 
leagues 
becomes 
war  with 
Rome. 


Conquests 
and  work 
of  Alex- 
ander. 


War.     The  idea  of  the  league,  hke  that  of  democracy,  is  one 
of  the  pohtical  ideas  that  we  owe  to  Greece. 

221.  Greece  Becomes  a  Dependency  of  Rome.  — 
In  its  wars  against  Macedon,  the  ^EtoHan  League  asked 
aid  of  a  great  but  new  power  that  had  gained  Italy  and 
all  of  the  surrounding  territory.  This  new  power  was 
Rome.  Rome  was  glad  to  take  part  in  Greek  affairs.  She 
first  defeated  Macedon  and  then  broke  up  both  the  ^Eto- 
lian  and  the  Achaean  Leagues,  when  she  found  that 
they  could  not  or  would  not  keep  order  in  Greece.  The 
conquest  of  Greece  by  Rome,  and  the  destruction  of  the 
great  commercial  city  of  Corinth  in  146  B.C.  made  Greece 
a  dependency  of  the  great  Roman  republic.  Thence- 
forth Greek  history  was  merged  in  Roman  history. 

222.  Summary.  —  When  Philip  of  Macedon  was  assas- 
sinated, he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexander.  Mace- 
don, Greece  and  the  Danubian  provinces  at  once  revolted. 
Alexander  quickly  suppressed  each  in  turn,  destroying 
Thebes.  He  then  gathered  an  army  to  conquer  the 
Persian  empire.  The  battle  of  Granicus  gave  him  western 
Asia  Minor.  Issus  gave  him  Syria.  The  siege  and  de- 
struction of  Tyre  left  the  way  open  to  Egj'pt,  where  he 
founded  Alexandria.  He  then  proceeded  toward  Persia. 
At  Arbela  he  overthrew  Darius  III.  His  later  campaigns 
brought  him  to  the  Indus  River.  Alexander  tried  to  unite 
the  East  and  the  West,  social^  by  intermarriages,  eco- 
nomically through  giving  Alexandria,  Rhodes,  Athens  and 
Corinth  more  eastern  trade,  and  in  general  by  the  founding 
of  cities  and  the  spread  of  Greek  culture  throughout  the 
East. 

The  Hellenistic  period  from  the  death  of  Alexander 
(323  B.C.)  to  the  fall  of  Corinth  (146)  is  a  period  of  diffu- 
sion of  the  old  Hellenic  civilization  rather  than  the  devel- 
opment of  a  new  culture.  Greek  culture  in  the  East  was 
kept  alive  by  the  kingdom  of  the  Ptolemys  (Egypt,  etc.) 


GREECE   AFTER  ALEXANDER  177 

and  that  of  the  Seleucids  (Syria  and  the  East).     Egypt  The  spread 

and  Syria  being  the  two  permanent  kingdoms  that,  be-  [*g^i^^^^^f' 

sides  Macedonia,  survived  from  Alexander's  empire.     In  ture 

this  Hellenistic  world  the  chief  centres  of  culture  were  +}je°^^^gj:^jj^ 

Alexandria,   famous   for   her   wealth,   commerce,   science  Mediter- 

and  literature ;  Athens,  famous  for  her  general  culture :  ^^^^f ^ 

'  '  ...  coasts. 

Pergamum,  noted  for  her  art ;  Rhodes,  distinguished  for 
her  colossal  art  and  her  maritime  law ;  and  Antioch, 
noted  for  her  luxury.  From  these  centres  Greek  civil- 
ization was  united  with  the  civilization  of  the  Orient,  so 
that  the  eastern  Mediterranean  became  Hellenistic. 

In  Greece  the  invasions  of  the  Gauls  interfered  with   The  leagues 
Macedon  so  that  two  leagues  were  formed,  the  iEtolian,   of. Greece. 

1  c     1  Dissensions 

a  league  of  hill  tribes,  and  the  Achaean,  a  league  of  about  and  the 
half  of  the  cities  of  Greece.     The  quarrels  of  the  leagues  fo^quest 

.  .by  Rome. 

brought  about  the  entrance  of  Rome  in  Greek  affairs  and 
led  to  the  overthrow  by  Rome,  first  of  Macedon,  and 
later  of  Greece. 

General  References 

Westermann,  Story  oj  the  Ancient  Nations,  199-243. 
Morey,  Outlines  of  Greek  History,  307-346. 
Mahaffy,  Progress  of.  Hellenism  in  Alexander' s  Empire. 
Mahaffy,  The  Story  of  Alexander's  Empire,  esp.   1-42,  89-95, 
142-155,  176-183,  187-198,  218-224. 
Wheeler,  Alexander  the  Great. 
Holm,  History  of  Greece,  IV,  esp.  437-513. 
Ferguson,  Greek  Imperialism,  116-248. 

Topics 

The  Work  of  Alexander  the  Great  :  Westermann, 
Story  of  the  Ancient  Notions,  199-213  ;  Wheeler,  Alexander  the 
Great,  496-501 ;   Holm,  History  of  Greece,  III,  376-388. 

Alexandria:  Botsford,  Source  Book  of  Ancient  History, 
303-310;  Holm,  History  of  Greece,  IV,  303-314,  437-442; 
Mahaffy,  Progress  of  Hellenism  in  Alexander's  Empire,  63-89. 

N 


178  GREECE 

Studies 

1.  The  youth  of  Alexander.  Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient 
History,  I,  298-304. 

2.  The  siege  of  Tyre.     Fling,  Source  Book,  300-308. 

3.  The  sack  of  Persepolis.     Botsford,  Source  Book,  277-280. 

4.  Alexander's  trip  to  the  temple  of  Amon.  Wheeler,  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  344-355. 

5.  Zeno  and  Epicurus.  Mahaffy,  Surrey  of  Greek  Civiliza- 
tion, 256-264. 

6.  The  Greek  federations.  Ferguson,  Greek  Imperialism, 
23.5-240. 

7.  Aratus  and  Sparta,     Plutarch,  Lives,  "  Aratus  "  (last  third). 

Questions 

1.  What  were  the  problems  that  confronted  Alexander  at  his 
father's  death  ?     How  did  he  solve  each  of  them  ? 

2.  Trace  on  the  map  the  route  of  Alexander,  locating  in  turn 
the  Granicus,  Issus,  Tyre,  Alexandria,  Arbela,  Persepolis  and 
the  Indus. 

3.  What  were  some  of  the  social,  commercial  and  intellectual 
changes  due  to  Alexander  ? 

4.  What  was  the  Hellenic  period  ?  The  Hellenistic  period  ? 
What  was  the  importance  of  the  Hellenic  period  ?  Of  the 
Hellenistic  period  ? 

5.  On  a  map  point  out  the  four  temporary  and  three  perma- 
nent kingdoms  after  Alexander.  Give  the  names  of  the  ruling 
house  in  two  of  the  kingdoms.  Name  the  most  important  city 
of  each  kingdom. 

6.  Why  were  Alexandria  and  Athens  the  most  important  cen- 
tres of  the  Hellenistic  period  ? 

7.  For  what  was  Pergamum  distinguished  ?  for  what  Rhodes  ? 
What  was  the  Museum  ? 

8.  Name  the  seven  wonders  of  the  ancient  world.  Describe 
them.     Name  seven  wonders  of  the  modern  world. 

9.  Tell  about  the  organization  of  the  Achaean  league.  Was 
it  like  our  Confederation  from  1781  to  1789  ?  In  what  respect 
was  it  like  our  present  Union? 

10.  Give  dates  of  the  following  important  events  in  Greece 
history,  explaining  why  each  is  important :  the  first  Olympic 
contest,  Marathon,  Philip's  victory  over  Greece,  the  destruction 
of  Corinth. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
THE    PLACE    OF    GREECE    IN   HISTORY 

223.  Importance  of  Greek  Civilization. — Western  civil-   Modern- 
ization of  the  present  time  is  largely  an  outgrowth   of  ^^^  ^^  ^^^ 
Greek  civilization.     As  the  Greek  language  is  related  to  compared 
the  languages  of  western  Europe,  so  the  civilization  of  ^^t^  ^^j 
western  Europe  is  closely  connected  with  that  of  ancient 
Greece.     The  ancient  Orient  seems  very  remote  to  us, 
because  the  people  of   Babylonia  and  ancient  Egypt  are 

not  kinsmen  of  ours,  and  their  civilization  seems  almost 
to  belong  to  a  different  world  from  our  own.  Greece, 
however,  seems  more  a  part  of  ourselves.  The  Pharaohs 
are  oriental  monarchs,  but  Themistocles  and  Demosthenes 
are  modern  politicians.  Egyptian  and  Babylonian  archi- 
tecture seems  to  us  fantastic  and  oriental.  That  of 
Greece  furnishes  models  that  we  love  to  copy.  The  proc- 
lamations of  the  Assyrian  kings  are  crude  and  stiff ;  but 
the  writings  of  the  Greeks  remind  us  of  the  best  of  our  own, 
in  their  grace,  their  simpKcity  and  their  beauty  of  form. 
The  Greek  youths,  meeting  in  athletic  contests,  are  cer- 
tainly not  far  removed  from  the  high  school  boys  or  college 
men  of  to-day.  The  assemblies  of  Athens  and  other  Ionian 
cities  have  a  certain  kinship  to  our  New  England  town 
meetings.  Greece  then  is  the  most  modern  of  the  ancient 
nations. 

224.  Greece  was  the  Melting  Pot  of  Ancient  Civiliza-   Greece  took 
tions.  —  A  mixed  people  like  ourselves,  the  Greeks  were  EaS^the 
the  heirs  of  all  the  ages  before  them,  as  we  are.     They  gave  to 
took  the  architecture  and  science  of  the  Egyptians,  the  I^JJJi^\y(^^/ 
business  codes,  methods  and  standards   of   the   Babylo- 

179 


180 


GREECE 


nians,  the  alphabet  of  the  Phoenicians  and  the  art  of  the 
Cretans,  and,  out  of  these  elements  which  they  borrowed 
from  their  predecessors,  they  created  a  new  and  distinct 
civilization,  which  they  passed  on  to  all  Mediterranean 
peoples,  first  in  the  East,  and  later,  as  we  shall  see  (§§  268- 
273),  to  those  of  the  West.  Because  our  religion  and  many 
of  our  ideas  differ  from  those  of  the  Greeks,  we  do  not 
look  upon  them  as  our  older  brothers ;  but,  because 
we  have  learned  so  much  from  them,  we  do  look  up  to 
them  as  our  great  teachers. 


Greek  citi- 
zens.   Inter- 
relations of 
family,  re- 
ligion and 
citizenship. 


The  need  of 
metics  and 
their  dia- 
abilities. 


Social  Life 

225.  Classes  of  the  Greeks,  Citizens.  —  Greek  society 
was  divided  into  three  classes,  the  citizens,  the  foreigners, 
or  met'ics,  and  the  slaves.  The  citizens  were  born  in 
Greece  of  Greek  parents.  .  They  were  separate  from  all 
others.  They  alone  had  the  right  to  take  part  in  reH- 
gious  festivals  and  rites,  for  religion  was  an  affair  of  the 
family  and  of  the  state.  Those  who  did  not  belong  to  a 
Greek  family  necessarily  could  not  share  in  the  family's 
religion.  If  they  were  not  members  of  a  Greek  family, 
they  could  not  be  members  or  citizens  of  a  Greek  city-state 
either  (§  236).  So  fmnily,  religion  and  citizenship  ivere 
hound  up  together.  None  but  an  adult  male  citizen  might 
hold  office  or  attend  the  assembly  or  own  land  or  protect 
himself  in  the  courts.  So  it  was  very  important  that  a 
person  should  be  a  citizen. 

226.  Foreigners.  —  The  metics  were  not  very  numerous 
in  Greece,  for  the  people  did  not  welcome  them  unless 
there  was  trade  to  be  carried  on  or  manufacturing,  which 
the  citizen  did  not  consider  suitable  for  himself.  The 
metic  was  treated  like  the  Jew  to-day  in  Russia,  or  as  the 
Jew  was  treated  throughout  Europe  during  the  Middle 
Ages.     The  metic  was  tolerated    because  he  was  needed 


SOCIAL   LIFE 


181 


in  business,  but  he  was  despised.  He  was  forced  to  place 
himself  under  the  protection  of  some  citizen  who  looked 
after  him,  who  was  responsible  for  his  good  conduct  and 
represented  him,  if  necessary,  in  the  courts,  where  citizens 
only  were  allowed  to  plead. 

227.  Slaves.  —  The  third  class  in  Greece,  numbering 
nearly  one-half  of  the  entire  population,  included  the  slaves 
or  serfs.  In  Laconia  they  were  serfs  tied  to  the  land. 
They  could  not  be  sold  apart  from  the  land.  These  per- 
sons, of  course,  were  not  true  slaves.  The  slave  was  a  man 
who  belonged  absolutely  to  his  master.  He  had  been 
bought  and  could  be  sold,  he  might  be  punished  or  put  to 
death.  He  could  not  marry  without  his  master's  consent, 
and  his  children  were  slaves.  He  might  buy  his  freedom, 
however,  and  he  then  became  a  freedman,  and  was  in  about 
the  same  position  as  a  metic. 

The  Greeks  sometimes  put  to  death  their  prisoners  of 
war,  but  they  usually  enslaved  them.  Occasionally,  if 
one  Greek  state  conquered  another  Greek  state,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  conquered  state  were  left  free,  but  more  fre- 
quently they  were  enslaved,  and  occasionally  they  were 
condemned  to  the  harshest  toil,  as  were  the  Athenians, 
who  were  kept  in  the  quarries  of  Syracuse  after  the  fail- 
ure of  the  Sicilian  expedition  (§  191).  When  a  Greek 
city  conquered  any  barbarians  —  and  they  called  all 
non-Greek  peoples  ^'  barbarians  ''  —  slavery  was  the  lot 
of  the  conquered  people  almost  without  exception. 

228.  The  Position  of  Woman.  —  In  their  attitude  to- 
ward slavery  and  in  their  attitude  toward  women  the 
Greeks  were  not  modern,  they  were  oriental.  In  Homeric 
society  and  later  in  Sparta  and  in  some  of  the  more  primi- 
tive communities,  women  were  allowed  considerable  free- 
dom. They  even  shared  in  the  sports  of  the  men,  the 
Spartan  women  having  their  own  athletic  contests.  This, 
however,  was  exceptional. 


How  the 
slaves    were 
treated. 


Treatment 
of  Greek 
and  bar- 
barian 
prisoners 
of  war. 


Survival 
in  Sparta 
of  primitive 
ideas  of 
freedom   for 
women. 


182 


GREECE 


The  Greeks 
treated 
their 

women  as 
inferiors 
and  kept 
them  in 
sofhision. 


Limited 
practical 
training  of 
Greek  girls. 


In  most  of  tlie  Greek  .states  women  lived  secluded  lives. 
They  took  no  part  in  public  affairs  of  any  kind.     They 

managed  their  own  households,  but 
they  never  went  in  public  except 
with  attendants.  When  a  girl  was 
married,  a  dowry  was  given  with 
her  and  the  arrangements  for  the 
wedding  wore  made  by  the  groom's 
father.  If  her  husband  brought 
guests  to  the  house,  she  immedi- 
ately retired,  for  she  was  not  sup- 
posed to  have  the  capacity,  or  the 
training,  to  understand  men's  af- 
fairs. Practically  she  was  a  metic 
rather  than  a  citizen,  for  she  did 
not  have  any  of  the  privileges  of 
citizenship. 

229.  The  Education  of  the  Greek 
Youth.  —  Greek  girls  were  not 
brought  up  in  utter  ignorance,  of  course,  for  they  had 
practical  training  in  the  duties  of  looking  after  a  home. 


Woman's  Dress  (Eirene). 


Greek  Chairs. 


Sometimes  they  were  educated  by  slaves,   so   that   they 
could  read,  write  and  sing  as  well. 

Principally,   however,   education  in  Greece,   as  every- 
where in  the  world  until  recent  years,  was  for  the  boys.^ 

1  In  Greece  the  young  boys  were  taught  chiefly  by  slaves,  pedagogues 
(boy  leaders),  but  the  youths  were  ordinarily  sent  to  regular  schools. 


SOCIAL   LIFE 


183 


Four  different  subjects  were  studied,  the  purpose  of  edu-  Purpose  and 
cation  being,  not  to  impart  information,  but  to  make 


m 


*:i^ 


"\^'riting  Material. 


the  youth  a  well- 
rounded  man,  phys- 
ically and  morally 
sound.  The  four 
different  kinds  of 
instruction  were 
gymnastics,  music, ^ 
reading  and  writing,  and  science.- 

230.  Worship  of  the  Greek  Gods,  Prayer.  —  The  wor- 
ship of  the  Greek  gods  was  an  important  matter  to  every 
Greek,  especially  to  the  Greeks  of  the  early  and  Hellenic 
periods.  Religion  was  an  affair  of  the  family  and  of  the 
state,  rather  than  of  the  individual.  In  all  towns  temples 
were  erected,  and  on  every  highway  there  were  altars. 
The  temples  were  simple  structures,  small  and  beautiful, 
being  homes  for  the  statues  of  the  gods  rather  than 
places  of  worship  for  the  multitude.  The  religious  exer- 
cises of  the  Greeks  took  place  within  the  home  or  at  public 
gatherings  rather  than  within  the  temples.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  a  meal  the  presence  of  the  god  was  invoked  and  a 
libation  of  wine  was  poured  out  for  the  god.^  Prayers 
were  usually  offered  standing,  the  supplicant  stretching 
forth  his  hands  to  the  heavens,  except  when  addressing  the 
gods  of  the  lower  world. 

231.  Sacrifices  to  the  Gods.  —  Offerings  were  made  to 


subjects     in 
Greek  edu- 
cation. 


Informal 
nature  of 
worship. 


Those  who  were  especially  interested  attached  themselves  to  some  great 
teacher  who  met  his  pupils  every  day  in  the  academy,  or  the  Lyceum  or 
some  porch  of  the  city. 

1  Religious  services,  fetes  and  festivals,  athletic  contests,  public  meet- 
ings and  home  gatherings  were  often  opened  or  closed  with  music,  music 
being  often  the  most  essential  feature  of  the  gathering. 

2  After  Aristotle's  time  the  boys  usually  studied,  in  addition,  mathe- 
matics, natural  science  and  perhaps  some  philosophy. 

3  The  wine  was  usually  poured  from  a  shallow  dish  to  the  ground. 


184 


GREECE 


Purifica- 
tion, blood- 
less sacri- 
fice and 
burnt  of- 
ferings. 


Moral 
standards 
of  the 
Greeks. 


the  gods  as  tokens  of  thanksgiving,  or  to  secure  the  favor 
of  the  deity,  or  to  appease  his  anger.  Before  offering 
prayer  or  sacrifice,  a  worshipper  must  be  purified,  usually 
by  sprinkling  with  sacred  water.  The  offering  might  be 
a  spray  of  flowers,  first  fruits  of  the  fields,  or  an  animal. 
The  sacrifices  of  burnt  offerings  were  of  doves,  goats  or 
oxen,  or  of  young  pigs,  if  a  crime  had  been  committed. 
While  animals  without  blemish  were  sought  for  the 
Olympic  deities,  black  animals  were  offered  to  those  of 
the  lower  regions.  Usually  only  a  part  of  the  victim  was 
burnt  for  the  god ;  the  rest  of  the  flesh,  roasted,  was 
eaten  by  the  worshipper  and  his  friends.  The  entrails  of 
the  victims  were  consulted  to  learn  the  wishes  of  the 
gods.  This  brief  account  will  give  us  just  a  little  idea 
of  the  part  played  by  religion  in  the  family  and  social 
life  of  the  Greeks. 

232.  Greek  Character.  —  The  moral  instruction  of  the 
Greek  youth  failed  to  teach  him  some  of  those  virtues 
which  modern  men  consider  most  important.  The  Greek 
had  a  different  moral  standard  from  ours.  Alcibiades 
has  been  called  the  typical  Greek,  for  he  was  handsome, 
was  physicall}^  well  developed ;  he  had  a  keen  mind,  and 
was  without  moral  scruple.  The  Persians  despised  the 
Greeks,  because  a  Greek  could  always  be  bought.^  Mile- 
tus, for  example,  deserted  her  neighbors  in  order  that  her 
trade  might  not  suffer  when  Cyrus  marched  against  her. 
No  Spartan  was  a  coward,  but  every  Spartan  was  taught 
to  steal,  the  immorality  of  the  act  consisting  solely  in  being 
caught,  as  with  some  modern  people,  in  high  finance  or  low. 

In  comparing  the  modern  Greek  with  the  ancient  Greek, 
one  very  high  authority  says  there  is  little  difference.^ 


1  The  Greeks  talked  smoothly,  and  appeared  honest,  yet  all  the  time 
they  could  be  bribed  at  slight  expens^e.  Even  the  oracle  at  Delphi  gave 
answers  that  were  more  favorable,  if  the  suppliant  came  with  gifts. 

2  Mahaffy,   What  have  the  Greeks  done  for  Modern  Civilization? 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


185 


"  There  is  the  same  cleverness,  not  without  a  special 
delight  in  overreaching  an  opponent ;  the  same  diligence, 
the  same  patriotism,  but  the  same  undying  jealousy  of  the 
success  of  others,  the  same  want  of  spirituality  in  religion, 
the  same  light  esteem  for  veracity." 

233.  The  Life  of  the  Greeks.  —  As  we  have  been 
accustomed  to  consider  the  Greeks  a  "  classical  "  people 
who  were  superior  to  all  others,  we  forget  sometimes 
that  Greece  was  not  a  paradise  and  that  all  Greeks 
were  not  statesmen  and  philosophers.  In  fact,  Greece 
was  a  barren  country,  and  Greek  people  lived  in  i:)overty, 
lacking  much  of  what  we  might  call  "  material  civil- 
ization." That  does  not  mean  that  they  were  less  civil- 
ized than  Ave,  it  may  mean  exactly  the  opposite,  for 
civilization  consists  not  in  the  things  that  man  hath,  but 
is  in  himself,  in  his  appreciation  of  what  is  worth  while 
and  his  ability  to  dispense  with  material  comforts.  Let 
us  consider  for  a  moment  some  of  the  things  that  we  have 
of  which  the  Greeks  knew  nothing. 

"It  is  easy  to  think  away  railways  and  telegraphs  and  gas 
works  and  tea  and  advertisements  and  bananas.  But  we  must 
peel  off  more  than  this.  We  must  imagine  houses  without 
drains,  beds  without  sheets  or  springs,  rooms  as  cold,  or  as  hot, 
as  the  open  air,  and  draughtier,  meals  that  began  and  ended 
with  pudding,  and  cities  that  could  boast  neither  gentry  nor 
millionaires.  We  must  learn  to  tell  time  without  watches,  to 
cross  rivers  without  bridges,  and  seas  without  a  compass,  to 
fasten  our  clothes  (or  rather  two  pieces  of  cloth)  with  two  pins 
instead  of  a  row  of  buttons,  to  wear  our  shoes  or  sandals  without 
stockings,  to  warm  ourselves  over  a  pot  of  ashes,  to  judge  open- 
air  plays,  or  lawsuits  on  a  cold  winter's  morning,  to  study  poetry 
without  books,  geography  without  maps,  and  politics  without 
newspapers.  In  a  word,  we  must  learn  how  to  be  civilized  with- 
out being  comfortable."  ^ 


Mahaffy's 
comparison 
of  the 

ancient  and 
modern 
Greek. 

Some  dif- 
ferences 
between 
Greek  life 
and  civil- 
ization 
and  our 
own. 


Zimmern's 
comparison 
of  ancient 
and  modern 
times. 


'  Zimmern,   The  Greek  Commonwealth,  p.  209. 


186 


GrKKli/GK 


Government 


Importance 
of   the  city- 
state  in 
Greek 
histon-. 


City-states 
united  in 
leagues ; 
never  in  a 
nation. 


Importance 
of  citizen- 
ship and 
of  ch-il 
rights. 


234.  The  City-State.  —  The  Greeks  never  had  a  national 
government,  even  for  all  of  Greece  proper.  As  we  have 
already  noticed  (§  120)  there  were  many  areas  in  Greece, 
each  of  which  was  organized  as  a  single  city-state.  These 
city-states  were  the  important  political  units  in  Greece,  for 
all  communities  within  the  boundaries  of  the  city-state 
were  subordinate  to  the  city-state.  Every  person  living 
within  these  boundaries  was  either  a  citizen  of  the  city- 
state  or  a  subject.  In  an  early  period  the  citizens  were 
those  who  were  bound  closely  together  by  ties  of  religion 
and  blood.  They  alone  had  any  possible  share  in  the 
government,   even  in  the  democracies. 

In  Greek  history  the  need  of  union  was  met  by  the  for- 
mation at  first  of  amphictyonies  and  later  of  political 
leagues  such  as  the  Peloponnesian  League,  the  Delian 
League,  the  leagues  broken  up  by  Sparta  (§  194),  and  the 
Achsean  and  ^tolian  leagues.  The  city-states  main- 
tained their  independence  and  equality  in  these  leagues. 

235.  Importance  of  Citizenship.  —  It  does  not  mean 
very  much  to  us,  perhaps,  to  say  that  we  are  citizens  of  the 
United  States  because  we  were  born  here  or  because  our 
parents  have  been  naturalized  in  the  United  States.  Yet 
it  is  just  as  important  for  a  man  to  be  a  member  or  a  citi- 
zen of  a  nation  as  it  is?  for  a  child  to  be  a  member  of  a  home. 
The  man  who  is  a  citizen  is  looked  after  and  cared  for  by 
the  government  (the  state).  His  life  and  property  are 
protected.  His  right  to  buy  property,  to  do  business, 
to  care  for  his  family,  is  upheld  by  the  government. 
Such  rights  are  called  civil  rights.  If  he  travels  abroad, 
the  government  sees  that  he  is  not  molested.  If  he  de- 
cides to  live  abroad,  he  can  appeal  to  his  old  government 
for  protection  at  any  time  until  he  becomes  a  citizen  of 
some  other  country. 


GOVERNMENT 


187 


If  he  has  the  right  to  take  part  in  the  work  of  govern- 
ing his  city,  his  county,  his  state  and  his  nation,  he  has,  in 
addition  to  the  ordinary  rights  of  citizenship  which  all  of 
us  have,  the  privileges  of  voting  and  of  holding  office. 
Sometimes  we  think  that  these  political  privileges  are 
the  chief  rights  of  citizenship,  but  they  are  not,  for  living 
and  getting  a  living  are  more  important  than  voting. 

236.  Development  of  the  Greek  Idea  of  Citizenship.  — 
So  long  as  any  people  are  ruled  arbitrarih^  by  kings,  they 
are  subjects,  not  citizens.  But,  as  soon  as  certain  rights 
and  privileges  are  recognized  as  belonging  to  them,  they 
really  are  members  of  the  nation  to  w^iich  they  belong, 
whether  they  are  ruled  by  a  king  or  a  group  of  men. 
They  deserve  then  to  be  called  citizens. 

In  most  of  the  Greek  city-states,  a  man  was  a  citizen 
of  his  city,  but  of  nothing  else.^  In  Athens,  however, 
Athenian  citizenship  was  extended  first  to  all  the  people 
of  Attica,  then  to  Athenian  colonists  and  finally  to  all 
adult  free  male  residents  of  Attica.  In  the  Achaean 
league  a  citizen  of  any  city  in  the  league  was  allowed  all 
of  the  rights  and  privileges  of  citizens  in  any  other  city. 
A  citizen  of  one  city  might  move  to  another  and  become  a 


I'olitical 
privileges 
are  some- 
times added 
to  civil 
rights. 


Difference 
between  a 
subject  and 
a  citizen. 


Athens  and 
the  Achaean 
League 
developed 
on  a  small 
scale  the 
modern 
idea  of 
citizenship. 


1  However,  in  Athens  there  were  three  important  changes.  (1)  In  a  very- 
early  day,  Athens,  which  was  the  largest  city  of  the  peninsula  of  Attica, 
allowed  all  of  the  inhabitants  of  Attica  who  were  not  foreigners  or  slaves 
to  become  Athenian  citizens.  This  was  a  very  important  change,  for  it 
carried  the  idea  that  citizens  need  not  live  in  the  city.  (2)  During  the 
Athenian  empire,  Athens  founded  colonies,  especially  on  the  shores  of 
the  north  ^gean  and  the  Black  Seas.  The  inhabitants  of  these  colonies 
retained  their  Athenian  citizenship,  so  that  they  might  return  at  any  time 
to  Athens.  No  other  Greek  colonists  (§  141)  could  do  this,  for  they  had  lost 
their  citizenship  in  their  native  city,  when  they  set  out  as  colonists. 
(3)  During  the  Hellenistic  period,  when  Macedonian  agents  really  ruled 
Athens  and  citizenship  did  not  mean  so  much,  Athens  gave  citizenship  to  all 
who  came  to  Attica,  except  slaves.  This  is  quite  like  our  modern  idea  of 
citizenship,  that  is,  that  citizenship  belongs  primarily  to  those  born  in 
the  country,  but  that  it  shall  be  given  also  to  those  that  make  that 
country  their  home. 


188 


grp:ece 


Four  stages 
in  Greek 
political 
develop- 
ment. 


Importance 
of  written 
law. 


Extent  of 

Greek 

democracy. 


Importance 
of  Greek 
democracy. 


citizen  of  the  st'coiul  city.  This  wjis  an  intcr-citij  ciiizen- 
iihip,  which  showed  that  national  citizenshij)  could  be  de- 
veloped as  it  was  developed  afterward  by  the  Romans.  All 
civilized  countries  of  the  present  time  have  national  citizen- 
ship, which  they  owe  in  great  part  to  the  Greeks. 

237.  The  Development  of  Greek  Government.  —  As 
we  noticed  at  the  beginning  of  the  study  of  Greece,  the 
Greek  cities  which  developed  most  passed  through  four 
successive  stages  of  government,  monarchy,  aristocracy, 
tyranny  and  democracy.  Some  of  them  remained  aristo- 
cratic almost  to  the  end ;  others,  especially  those  of  cen- 
tral Greece  and  the  islands  of  the  ^Egean,  were  demo- 
cratic. 

238.  Aristocracy  and  Democracy.  —  Aristocracy  may 
seem  very  much  better  than  monarchy,  because  it  sub- 
stituted the  rule  of  several  for  the  rule  of  one.  But 
aristocracy  is  not  a  step  upward  if  the  aristocracy  rules 
selfishly  and  unjustly.  The  people  in  Greek  and  Roman 
aristocracies  were  usually  obliged  to  demand  that  the  laws 
be  written,  so  that  the  leaders  could  not  make  such  laws 
as  they  pleased  at  any  time  and  apply  them  or  not,  as 
they  wished. 

Nearly  one-half  of  the  Greek  cities  were  democracies. 
In  some  of  the  dependencies  of  Athens,  of  course,  a  demo- 
cratic form  of  government  was  adopted  because  Athens 
wished  it,  and  it  was  the  popular  thing  to  copy  Athens. 
We  have  already  noticed  the  character  of  this  democracy 
(§§  183,  184). 

Since  the  assemblies  proved  that  localities  could  govern 
themselves  through  their  own  assemblies,  councils  and 
magistrates,  we  owe  a  great  debt,  especially  to  Athens, 
for  the  democratic  government  of  Greek  cities.  We  owe 
to  the  Greeks  also  the  development  of  the  idea  of  the 
league,  a  union  of  self-governing  states. 


LITERATURE 


189 


Literature 

239.  Character  of  Greek  Literature.  —  The  Greeks 
thought  clearly  and  directly.  They  expressed  themselves 
with  a  simplicity  and  an  exactness  that  has  never  been 
excelled,  and  has  never  even  been  equalled,  except,  per- 
haps, in  modern  times  by  the  French.  The  Greek  lan- 
guage was  wonderfully  adapted  to  express  shades  of  mean- 
ing, so  that  the  Greeks  delighted  in  what  we  may  call 
''  hair-splitting  arguments."  Their  fondness  for  fine 
distinctions  often  led  them  into  the  most  elaborate  dis- 
courses on  subjects  that  were  in  themselves  not  worth 
while.  In  short,  they  often  wrote  and  spoke  chiefly 
for  the  sake  of  writing  and  speaking  rather  than  for  the 
purpose  of  explaining  the  subject  under  consideration. 
This  was  especially  true  in  the  later  Golden  Age  and  in 
the  earlier  Hellenistic  period. 

240.  Homer  and  Hesiod.  —  The  earliest  writers  used 
poetry  rather  than  prose  for  the  expression  of  their  thought. 
Homer  was  perhaps  the  earliest  of  these.  The  great  epic 
poems  attributed  to  Homer  were  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey 
(§§  128,  129).  Of  Homer  himself  we  know  nothing. 
Tradition  says  he  was  blind  and  the  poet  says  of  him : 

"Seven  cities  warred  for  Homer  being  dead, 
Who  living  had  no  roofe  to  shroud  his  head." 

Another  early  poet  was  Hesiod,  who  wrote,  not  of  war  and 
of  kings,  but  of  toil  and  of  farmers.  His  Works  and  Days 
is  his  best-known  poem. 

241.  The  Lyric  Poets.  —  After  Homer  and  Hesiod  most 
of  the  poems  were  shorter  and  were  written  to  be  sung, 
and  accompanied  by  the  lyre.  They  are  therefore  called 
lyric  poems.  The  most  famous  of  the  lyric  poets  were 
Sap'pho,  a  brilliant  woman  of  the  Asia  Minor  coast,  and 
Pin'dar,  whose  lyric  poems  were  most  admired  in  the 


Clearness, 
exactness 
and  elabo- 
rateness 
of  Greek 
writing. 


Early  epic 
poetry. 
Homer  and 
Hesiod. 


Lyric 
poetry. 
Sappho  and 
Pindar. 


190 


GREECE 


Early  de- 
velopment 
of  the 
drama  at 
Athens. 


contests  at  the  Olympic  games  and  other  festivals  in  the 
period  of  the  Persian  Wars. 

242.  Athenian  Tragedy.  —  The  drama  was  essentially 
an  Athenian  product.  From  an  early  day  choruses  had 
sung  at  the  festivals.  At  the  festival  of  Di-o-nys'i-us  at 
Athens,  one  of  the  chief  events  of  the  year,  Thes'pis  added 
to  the  chorus  a  single  actor  who  appeared  in  several  parts. 
More  characters  were  introduced  by  the  later  dramatists 
and  the  drama  became  a  fine  art,  but  tragedians  are  still 


Masks  for  Tragedy. 


The  ear- 
liest great 
tragic  poet. 
zEschylus. 


Sophocles 
the  suc- 
cessor of 
^schylus. 


called  Thespians  after  the  Greek  poet  who  was  the  father 
of  tragedy. 

The  earliest  of  the  great  trio  of  Athenian  writers  of 
tragedy,  Ms'chij-lus,  first  won  distinction  at  the  time  of  the 
Persian  Wars.  His  first  great  tragedy  was  called  the  Per- 
sians, for  he  had  fought  at  Salamis  and  his  drama  gives  us 
a  stirring  picture  of  that  naval  struggle.  His  Pro-me'theus 
Bound  brings  out  more  clearly  the  style  in  which  he  wrote, 
for  he  was  ver\'  much  in  earnest. 

243.  Later  Athenian  Writers  of  Tragedy.  —  Sophocles 
defeated  ^schjdus  in  the  Di-o-nys'i-a  (the  festival  of 
Dionysius)  (468  b.c),  and  the  younger  man  became 
rapidly  the  most  prominent  of  the  Athenian  dramatists. 
His  style  is  lighter  and  his  plays  are  more  artistic  than 
those  of  ^schylus.  He  makes  more  of  the  moral  inter- 
est in  the  development  of  his  themes.  His  An'tig'o-ne 
and  his  (Ed'i-pu^  Ty-ran'nus  may  be  given  as  examples 
of  his  tragedies. 


LITERATURE 


191 


Later    than    Sophocles    was    Eu-rip'i-des,    who    wrote  Euripides, 
during  the  last  years  of  the  Golden  Age  of  Pericles  and 
the  Peloponnesian  War.     Euripides  was  more  human  than 
either  of  his  predecessors.     His  plays  were  written  with 


Greek  Theatre. 


DiMK.COGBeS-  / 
fONfilkS  TO     / 
THE  St3»U$ 
WAOitefiN 

Alb  NO* 

usaroe 


we  3flwc  BKXMe  w,Km^ 
^  j/eisrraNTiortoPtKB 
'  \  wsKTtt  T/fflaro. 
ur-it  or  sn^ 

JliTKESriSSKI 


Roman  Theatre. 

the  idea  of  making  a  strong  appeal  to  the  audience  and 
were  on  this  account  extremely  popular.  Perhaps  his 
Me-de'a  and  his  two  Iiph-i-ge-ni' a  plays  may  serve  as 
examples  of  his  tragedies. 

244.  Early  Comedy  in  Athens.  —  Athens  was  not  only 
the  home  of  the  great  tragedians.     It  was  the  home  of 


102 


GREECE 


Develop- 
ment of 
the  old 
comedy. 
Aristoph- 
anes. 


The  world 
influence  of 
the  new 
Greek 
comedj'. 


Herodotus, 
the  stor>'- 
teller. 


comedy  as  well.  Soon  after  the  palmy  days  of  Euripides, 
Ar-is-toph'a'nes  began  to  write  for  the  Athenian  public. 
For  a  long  time  tragedy  had  been  gradually  growing  more 
"  popular,"  that  is,  lighter  and  with  a  stronger  popular 
appeal,  but  at  the  same  time  Athenians  had  been  becom- 
ing interested  in  something  still  lighter,  comedy.  Aris- 
tophanes was  the  greatest  writer  of  comedy  in  ancient 
times.  He  caricatured  the  people  and  affairs  of  Athens, 
making  sport  of  pompous  statesmen  and  philosophers 
of  his  own  day.  In  his  Clouds  he  makes  fun  of  the 
Sophists.  In  his  Wasps  he  satirizes  the  jurymen.  His 
Birds  and  his  Frogs  caricature  other  phases  of  Athenian 
life. 

245.  The  "  New  Comedy  "  of  Hellenistic  Athens.  — 
After  the  time  of  Alexander  there  arose  in  Athens  what 
was  called  the  New  Comedy,  which  was  more  like  a  modern 
play  with  a  plot.  Me-nan'der  was  the  chief  of  the  drama- 
tists of  the  new  comedy.  His  plays  are  coarse  and  his 
plots  have  little  variety,  but  his  plays  were  ''  alive."  The 
new  comedy  was  copied  in  Alexandria  and  in  Rome  and 
has  had  a  greater  direct  influence  on  later  drama  than  the 
dramas  of  Menander's  predecessors,  whose  plays  were 
much  finer  literature  than  were  his. 

246.  Fifth  Century  Historians.  —  The  Greeks  have 
left  us  some  of  the  finest  and  some  of  the  most  interesting 
examples  of  historical  literature.  All  of  us  have  read 
with  interest  those  classics  of  Herodotus  describing  the 
famous  stand  at  Thermopylae  and  the  Greek  victory  at 
Salamis.  Herodotus  justly  deserves  to  be  called  the 
''  father  of  history."  As  a  story-teller  he  is  without  a 
peer  and  he  makes  his  scenes  live  before  us.  Herodotus 
travelled  widely  and  he  describes  accurately  what  he  saw. 
He  accepts  too  credulously  what  he  heard,  but,  if  we 
discount  his  proneness  to  exaggeration,  we  find  him  a 
good  guide  to  the  Greece  of  the  Persian  Wars  and  an  in- 


LITERATURE  193 

teresting  if  untrustworthy  guide  to  the  story  of  earlier 
nations. 

Thu'Cyd'i-des,  who  left  us  an  account  of  the  Pelopon-  Thucydides, 
nedan  Wars,  was  the  opposite  of  Herodotus.     He  was  a  J!l®  ^"^^^" 
careful,  painstaking  scholar  who  examined  and  weighed  torian. 
all  of  his  materials  as  carefull}^  as  the  most  accurate,  mod- 
ern scientific  historian.     Thucydides  wrote  in  clear,  choice 
Greek  that  it  is  a  pleasure  to  read. 

247.  Later    Historians    and    Biographers.  —  The   story  Xenophon 
of  Greece  is  continued  by  Xen'o-phon,  who  is  best  kno^^Tl  ?^^  Polyb- 
by  his  vivid  narrative  of  the  March  of  the  Ten  Thousand 

(the  A-nab'a-sis,  §  195),  in  which  Xenophon  took  an 
important  part.  The  story  of  Roman  conquest  is  told 
by  Po-lyb'i-us,  a  statesman,  and  later  a  captive  in  Rome, 
whose  History  gives  us  a  good  account  of  the  downfall  of 
Greece. 

Two  centuries  after  Polybius,  in  a  little  town  of  central  Plutarch's 
Greece,  a  man  named  PluHarch  lived  a  very  secluded  life,   ^^^^^" 
devoting  himself  to  the  writing  of  Parallel  Lives  of  the 
great  men  of  ancient  times.     So  charming  are  these  biog- 
raphies of  Plutarch  that  it  has  been  said  truly,  he  wrote 
parallel  lives,  but  his  Lives  were  without  a  parallel. 

248.  Greek  Oratory.  —  In  the  life  of  the  Greeks  oratory  Oratorj^ 
was  certainly  more  important  than  history,  and  probably  ^^^  ^  ^*V^^ 

^  ^  -^  '  ^  "^     of  correct, 

more  important  than  the  drama.     All  the  Greeks,  with  elegant  and 
the  exception  of  the  Spartans,  loved  to  talk,  and  they  ^^''^^^^^ 
studied  the  subject  carefully,  so  that  they  might  speak  pression  of 
well.     They  studied  grammar  and  rhetoric  as  well  as  per-  ^^o^sht. 
suasion  and  literary  style,  for  they  rightly  deemed  the 
correct  and  elegant  oral  expression  of  their  thoughts  one 
of  the  most  important  points  in  their  education.    Few 
of  the  Greeks  carried  oral  speaking  to  the  point  that  it 
was  brought  by  the  Athenians.     The  Athenians  insisted 
that  men  should  take  some  part  in  the  assembh'  and  that 
any  one  brought  before  a  court  should  defend  himself  in 


194 


GREECE 


Demos- 
thenes the 
typical  and 
the  greatest 
Greek 
orator. 


person.     In  Athens  therefore  we  find,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, the  best  of  the  orators. 

249.  Demosthenes.  —  One  name  must  suffice  for  our 
study.  That  of  course  is  the  Athenian  statesman  Demos- 
thenes, who  stood  up  for  "  state's  rights  "  against  the  semi- 
foreign  but  national  leader,  Philip  of  Macedon.  These 
orations,  as  we  know,  were  called  Philippics.  Whether 
he  was  right  or  wrong  in  his  politics,  Demosthenes  was 
undoubtedly  the  greatest  orator  of  the  Greeks.  He 
proved  that  in  the  way  he  held  Athens  firm  in  her  opposi- 
tion io  the  successes  of  Philip.  When  his  friends  sug- 
gested that  he  be  offered  a  crown  of  gold,  he  made  his 
last  and  perhaps  his  greatest  speech,  On  the  Crown,  in 
his  argument  against  ^Es^chi-nes.  Like  so  many  of  the 
great  men  of  Athens,  he  died  a  fugitive  and  an  exile. 


The  Greeks 
excelled  in 
art. 


The  debt 
of  Greece 
to  Eg>'pt. 


The  three 
kinds  of 
Greek 
columns. 


Greek  Art 

250.  Greek  Architecture.  —  Preeminent  as  the  Greeks 
were  in  literature,  they  WTre  even  more  distinguished  in 
certain  forms  of  art,  particularly  sculpture.  The  Par- 
thenon is  still  the  model  of  the  world's  best  architecture. 
No  sculptor  has  excelled  Phid'i-as,  the  friend  of  Pericles. 

Greek  architecture  was  undoubtedly  influenced  by  the 
Egyptians.  Like  the  Egyptians  the  Greeks  made  a 
specialty  of  temples  and  they  surrounded  their  temples 
with  columns.  Here  the  resemblance  stops.  The  Egyp- 
tian columns  are  heavy  and  unsightly  compared  with  Greek 
columns,  and  the  massive  Egyptian  buildings  have  none 
of  the  grace,  symmetry  and  beauty  of  the  Greek  temples. 

251.  The  Three  Orders  of  Greek  Architecture.  —  There 
are  three  orders  of  Greek  architecture,  distinguished  by 
the  capitals  at  the  top  of  the  columns.  The  earhest  and 
simplest  of  the  orders  is  called  Dor'ic.  The  cap  is  plain 
and  usually  square.     The  next  capital  developed  by  the 


GREEK   ART 


195 


Greeks  is  in  the  form  of  a  double  scroll  and  is  called  I-on'ic. 
The  last,  which  was  used  in  the  Hellenistic  period,  is  much 
more  elaborate  and  ornate  then  the  earlier,  and  the  capital 
is  made  up  of  acanthus  leaves.     It  is  called  Co-rin'thi-an. 

m,   §k    k   k    k 


D 
O 
R 
1 
G 


I 

o 

N 


The  "  orders  "  of  Greek  Architecture. 

252.  The    Parthenon.  —  The    Par'the-non  was    built,   The  most 
during  the  Golden  Age  of  Athens,  near  the  centre  of  the   [^^iid^ng^n 
Acropolis.     This  marble  temple  of  the  patron  goddess  of  the  world, 
the  city,  Athena,  is  little  more  than  one  hundred  feet  long. 
A  row  of  beautiful  columns  with  Doric  capitals  surrounds 
the  building,  with  double  columns  at  the  ends.     The  lines 
of  the  building  are  simplicity  itself,  and  the  strange  thing 
is  that  there  is  scarcely  a  straight  line  in  it.     In  order 
to   have   the   columns   look   straight    they   are    slightly 
curved.     The  floors  and  the  lines  of  the  ceiling  are  shghtly 
curved  so  that  they  ma}^  not  appear  to  sag.     Around  the 


19G 


GREECE 


building  below  the  cornice  there  was  a  frieze  several  feet 
high  which  bore,  in  relief,  exquisite  sculptures  illustrating 
events  in  Athenian  history,  mythical  or  actual.  Some  of 
these  were  the  work  of  the  great  Phidias  and  are  among  the 
most  spirited  of  his  carvings.  A  little  more  than  one 
hundred  years  ago  some  of  these  were  taken  to  the  British 
Museum  by  Lord  EFgin,  the  British  Minister  to  Greece, 


The  Parthenon,  Present  Condition. 


The  Erech- 
theum,  of 
the  Acrop- 
oHs. 


who  feared  that  they  might  be  destroyed.  They  are 
therefore  called  the  Elgin  marbles.  Other  fine  carvings 
adorned  the  pediments  at  the  ends  of  the  building.  In  the 
interior  was  the  famous  colossal  ivory  and  gold  statue 
of  Athena  by  Phidias,  which  ranked  with  his  still  larger 
Olympian  Zeus  in  popular  renown. 

253.  Other  Greek  Buildings.  —  Close  by  the  Parthenon 
is  another  temple  called  the  Er-ech-the'um.  It  is  a  build- 
ing of  irregular  shape  with  a  very  famous  porch  called  the 
porch  of  the  maidens   (Car-y-a'tids).     The  roof  of  this 


GREEK  ART 


197 


porch  is  supported  by  figures  of  maidens,   exceedingly 
graceful  and  beautifully  carved. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Parthenon,  cut  into  the 
side  hill,  is  the  theatre  of  Dionysius,  one  of  the  most  famous 
of  the  Greek  amphitheatres.  This  was  not  constructed 
in  marble  until  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Olympia,  the  city  in  which  the  Olympic  contests  were 
held,  was  famous  not  only  for  the  huge  statue  by  Phidias 
(the  Olympian  Zeus)  but  for  the  temples,  colonnades  and 
other  structures. 

Outside  of  Greece  there  were  many  famous  buildings, 
as  the  temple  at  Pse'stum  in  Italy  and  the  temple  of  Diana 
at  Ephesus.  The  massive  architecture  at  Pergamum  has 
already  been  mentioned. 

254.  Athenian  Sculp- 
ture. —  If  we  go  back 
to  Cretan  and  Myce- 
neandays  (§§124-126), 
we  find  that  the  Greek 
people  were  always  ar- 
tistic. Their  statues  are 
alive  and  graceful,  not 
stiff  and  conventional, 
like  those  of  oriental 
peoples.  It  was  not 
until  the  time  of  the 
Persian  Wars,  however, 
that  Greek  sculpture 
attained  the  promise 
shown  in  these  prehis- 
toric carvings  and  paint- 
ings. The  first  of  the 
great  sculptors  was 
My'ron,  who  is  best  known  by  his  discus  thrower  (Dis- 
cob'o-lus).     We  have  only  a  copy  of  this  statue  ;  in  fact, 


A  Greek 
amphi- 
theatre. 


The  public; 
buildings 
at  Olympia. 


Famous 
buildings 
outside  of 
Greece. 


Greek  art 
a  develop- 
ment of 
Cretan  and 
Mycenean 
art. 


Myron's  Discobolus. 


198 


GREECE 


Three  Fates. 

we  have  nothing  but  copies  of  most  of  the  famous  Greek 

statues. 
The  work  255.   The    Two     Greatest    Sculptors.  — The    Olympian 

Phidias^^^^    Zews  of  Phidias,  sixty  feet  high,  and  his  colossal  Athena 


Hermes,  by  Praxiteles. 


are  among  the  lost  treasures  of  Greek  art.     We  have  copies 
of  the  Athena  but  we  have  none  of  the  Zeus,  which  the 


GREEK  ART 


199 


Greeks  considered  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  Phid- 
ias' figures  on  the  Parthenon  frieze  are  about  the  only 
specimens  of  his  work  that  have  come  down  to  us,  but  his 
skill  can  be  judged  by  his  great  fame  among  a  people 
which  produced  many  famous  sculptors. 

A  century  after  Phidias  came  Prax-it'e-les,  whose  fame  Praxiteles, 
is  little  less  than  that  of  Phidias.     One  of  the  best  of  his 
statues  that  we  have  is  his  Her'mes. 


Sarcophagus  of  the  King  of  Sidon. 


256.   General  Character  of  Hellenistic  Art.  —  In  general  General 
Hellenic  art  is  simple  and   dignified,  while  Hellenistic  art   ^"  jj^ n"n 
is   ornate   and   elaborate.     Because   beauty   unadorned   is   istic  art. 
adorned  the  most,  the  art  of  the  Golden  Age  is  considered 
superior  to  the  later  art.     Yet  the  fame  of  the  statues  of 
the  earlier  period  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  they  were 
better  advertised,  for  the  Hellenistic  Age  has  left  us  the 
finest  examples  of  Greek  art  that  we  have,  aside  from  a  few 
specimens  from  Athens.     We  do  not  know  the  names  of 
any  of  the  sculptors  of   these  masterpieces  of   the  later 
age. 


200 


GREECE 


Four  fa- 
mous speci- 
mens of 
Hellenistic 
art. 


The  color- 
ing of  the 
marbles. 


Character 
of  Greek 
painting. 


257.  Examples  of  Later  Greek  Art.  —  The  Sar-coph'a- 
gus  of  the  king  of  Sidon  is  covered  with  roHefs  that  are 
almost  worthy  of  a  place  })eside  those  of  the  Parthenon 
frieze.     Belonging  to  the  same  period  is  the  statue  of  the 

Winged  Victory  of 
Sa'mo'thrace,  whose 
grace,  action  and 
charm  make  it  per- 
haps the  most  fa- 
mous statue  in  the 
world.  Somewhat 
later  is  the  A-poVlo 
Bel-vi-dere,  and  still 
later  the  famous 
Ve7ius  de  Mi'lo,  which 
makes  a  popular  ap- 
]:)eal  only  a  Httle  less 
strong  than  that  of 
the  Winged  Victory. 
258.  Greek  Paint- 
ing. —  We  must  not 
think  of  the  marble 
statues  and  buildings 
of  the  Greeks  as  be- 
ing pure  white.  The 
Greeks  painted  all  of  their  marbles,  not  in  one  color  but 
in  many.  In  doing  this  they  followed  the  custom  of  the 
Egyptians  and  other  oriental  people,  the  Egjq^tians  using 
yellow  to  designate  a  woman  and  red  a  statue  or  relief 
of  a  man. 

Greek  painting  undoubtedly  showed  the  same  active 
graceful  figures  that  the  reliefs  htve  preserved  to  us,  but 
of  course  most  of  the  paintings  have  perished.  The  natu- 
ralness of  Greek  painting  i*?  illustrated  by  the  well-known 
story  of  the  contest  between  Zeux'is  and  Par-rha'si-us. 


Apollo  iiclviderc 


GREEK  ART 


201 


One  of  them  painted  grapes  so  skilfully  that  the  birds 
were  attracted  to  them.  The  other  had  a  picture  covered 
with  a  veil.  When  asked  to  draw  aside  tbe  veil,  he  asked 
his  rival  to  do  so,  and,  behold,  the  veil  was  the  picture  ! 


Winged  Victory  of  Samothrace. 


Venus  de  Milo. 


Intellectual  Science 

259.  Early    Philosophers.  —  Combine    intellectual    ac-  Conditions 
tivity,   a  fondness  for  fine  distinctions  and  a  language  ^J™^ 
that  conveys  very  exactly  shades  of  thought,  and  we  are  phUosophy. 
almost  certain  to  have  philosophers  and  schools  of   phi- 
losophy.    In  Greece,  therefore,  philosophy  was  well  de- 
veloped.    Before  the  Persian  Wars  a  few  bold  thinkers 
had  proclaimed  their  theories  of  the  universe  and  of  life. 
Among  these  we  should  remember  Thales  and  Pythagoras 
(§§  265,  266).  ^ 


202 


GREECfij 


The 
Sophists. 


Methods 
and  high 
moral  tone 
of  Soerates" 
teachinjis. 


Trial  and 
death  of 
Socrates. 


The  first  promiiu'iit  school  of  philosophers,  however, 
was  that  of  the  Soph/ists.  The  Sophists  were  not  intel- 
lectual giants,  but  were  keen  students  of  life  and  teachers 
of  the  best  ways  to  express  one's  thoughts.  They  were  so 
intent  on  establishing  their  arguments  that  tliey  degen- 
erated into  mere  arguers,  so  that  the  name  sophistry  is 
applied  to  argument  that  sounds  well,  l)ut  is  not  valid. 
260.  Socrates.  —  A  student  of  the  Sophists  was  Soc'ra- 
tes,  a  younger  contemporary  of  Pericles.     Socrates  was  an 

exceedingly  homely 
man,  rather  untidy 
in  dress,  who  spent 
most  of  his  time  in 
the  streets.  He 
had  a  passion  for 
the  truth,  and  he 
sought  to  learn  the 
truth  by  question- 
ing his  hearers  and 
his  opponents. 
This  process  of  ob- 
taining a  knowl- 
edge of  truth  by 
questioning  is 
called  the  So-crat'ic  method.  Socrates  was  a  man  of  un- 
usual moderation  and  wisdom  who  found  the  end  of  exist- 
ence to  be  VIRTUE ;  piety,  justice,  courage  and  temperance 
being  four  important  forms  of  virtue.  In  other  words,  his 
was  a  practical  philosophy. 

His  own  virtue  and  the  high  standard  of  life  that  he  set 
forth  did  not  save  him  from  the  enmity  and  jealousy  of 
those  in  power  in  Athens  after  the  close  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War.  His  ruthless  questioning  had  exposed  the 
ignorance,  the  selfishness  and  the  dishonesty  of  too  many 
people.     He   was   therefore   a  dangerous   man.     He  was 


Socrates. 


INTELLECTUAL  SCIENCE  203 

accused  of  crime  because  he  did  not  worship  the  Greek 
gods,  his  enemies  charging  him  with  corrupting  youth. 
He  was  tried  before  a  popular  court,  and,  as  he  had  ridi- 
culed popular  government,  he  was  condemned  to  death. 
He  had  refused  to  take  his  trial  seriously,  suggesting  that 
the  state  punish  him  by  supporting  him  for  life.  When 
the  day  arrived  which  had  been  set  for  his  death,  he  calmly 
drank  the  cup  of  hemlock  poison,  after  bidding  farewell 
to  the  friends  with  whom  he  had  been  discussing  questions 
of  philosophy. 

261.  Plato.  —  Socrates  did   not   write  nor  did  he  de-  The  ideai- 
velop  a  system  of  philosophy.     His  ablest  pupil,  Pla'to,   j^*^^  ^^  ^ 
did  both.     Plato's  philosophy  is  a  philosophy  of  ideas,   piato/ 
He  thought  that  ideas,  not  material  objects,  are  the  things 

that  actually  exist.  A  man  that  sees  only  the  objects  of 
the  material  world,  he  likened  to  a  man  who  gropes  blindly 
in  a  cave.  When  he  sees  that  ideas  are  real,  and  that 
material  things  are  but  shadows  of  ideas,  he  comes  out 
into  the  clear  sunlight.  Plato's  idea  of  the  state,  as  shown 
in  the  most  famous  of  his  Dialogues,  the  Republic,  was 
this:  the  state  is  the  idea  of  Justice  ''writ  large."  His 
idea  was  that  the  government  should  rule  justly  and 
should  try  to  secure  justice  before  all  else.  Plato  did 
most  of  his  teaching  in  a  building  called  the  Academy. 

262.  Aristotle.  —  Ar-is-tot'le  was  much  younger  than  Aristotle 
Plato.     He  did  not  write  in  the  finished  style  that  Plato  H^lf^^^ 
used  and  he  did  not  favor  Plato's  philosophy  of  ideas,   knowledge 
Aristotle  was  an  exceedingly  practical  man,  with  an  al-  ^^  ^^^  ^^"^^• 
most  limitless  amount  of  knowledge  which  he  organized  in 
systems.    With  the  help  of  his  assistants  he  wrote  treatises 

on  almost  every  subject,  gathering  together  and  organiz- 
ing into  systems  or  sciences  all  of  his  vast  amount  of 
knowledge.  He  was  equally  at  home  in  an  abstruse  sub- 
ject like  philosophy,  or  in  a  mental  science  like  logic,  or 
in  practical  subjects  such  as  poUtics,  ethics  and  natural 


204 


CREEOR 


Stoicism 
and  its 
high  moral 
standard. 


Epicurus' 
doctrine  of 
happiness 
degenerates 
into  a 
pursuit  of 
pleasure. 


history.  Some  ot  his  best  work  in  natural  historj^  grew 
out  of  the  material  which  his  former  pupil  Alexander  sent 
him  from  the  East.  Because  Aristotle  gathered  and  or- 
ganized so  much  of  the  knowledge  and  methods  of  his  age, 
which  was  one  of  the  most  intellectual  in  all  history,  he 
was  widely  studied  by  the  people  of  western  Europe  in 
the  Middle  Ages. 

263.  Later  Philosophers.  —  Philosophers  after  Aristotle 
were  less  distinguished  than  the  three  great  men  of  the 
Hellenic  period.  Two  of  these  Hellenistic  philosophers 
deserve  mention  because  they  founded  schools  that  were 
of  great  importance  in  later  history.  One  of  these  was 
Ze'no,  the  Stoic.  Zeno  was  a  pupil  of  Diogenes,  the  Cynic. 
Di-og'e-nes  is  famous  as  the  man  who  lived  in  a  barrel, 
who  told  Alexander  to  stand  out  of  his  sunshine  and  who 
went  about  in  the  daytime  with  a  lantern,  hunting  for  an 
honest  man.  The  Stoics  believed  that  the  world  was 
ruled  by  a  Supreme  Being  whom  men  should  worship  by 
the  cultivation  of  virtue.  They  believed  in  self-denial, 
in  moral  growth,  and  in  i*ndifference  to  suffering,  to  luxury 
and  to  the  world  about  them.  The  Stoics  were  not  true 
Greeks  and  Stoicism  never  gained  a  real  foothold  in 
Greece,  but  it  made  a  very  strong  appeal  to  Greeks  in 
Asia  Minor  and  to  the  Romans,  as  we  shall  see. 

The  other  Hellenistic  philosophy  was  that  of  Epicurus. 
Ep-i-cu'rus  taught  that  men  should  be  good  if  they  were 
to  be  happy.  Happiness  was  therefore  the  chief  end  of 
existence.  To  many  of  his  followers  happiness  meant 
simply  pleasure,  and  they  brought  Epicurus  into  disrepute 
because  they  practised  the  motto,  '*  Eat,  drink  and  be 
merry,  for  to-morrow  we  die." 

264.  Science  in  Egypt,  Babylonia  and  Greece.  —  Be- 
fore the  time  of  the  Greeks  there  had  been  some  science. 
The  science  of  the  Egyptians  and  the  Babjdonians  was  a 
queer  mixture  of  theory,  fact  and  superstition.     Their 


INTELLECTUAL   SCIENCE  205 

early   astronomical   observations   were   really   remarkable,  Science 

but  they  did  not  make  much  progress  later.     The  Egyp-  ^®^°^^  *^® 

tian  geometry  was  crude,  and  used  chiefly  for  the  measure-  among  the 

ment  of  lands.     The   Babylonian  mathematics  was  used  Egj-ptians 

almost  exclusively  in  business.     The  Greeks  were  the  great  Babylo- 

scientists  before  the  nineteenth  century.  mans. 

265.  Pure  and  Applied  Mathematics  among  the  Greeks.  Arithmetic 
—  The  Greeks  never  developed  arithmetic  very  far,  for  q"^°^^ 
arithmetic  is   a   practical   subject,  and   the   early  Greek 
scientists  were  philosophers,  rather  than  men  of  affairs. 

As  they  did  not  have  our  system  of  figures,  they  used  count- 
ing boards  almost  exclusively,  in  reckoning  numbers. 

Geometry  was  fully  developed  by  the  Greeks,  for  the  Extraor- 
Greeks  excelled  in  both  theory  and  logic,  which  geometry  (^g^^g^Qp. 
combines.     The   elements   of   geometry   were   developed  ment  of 
by  early  philosophers,  especially  Py-thaxj'o-ras,  but  were  ^^°"^®  ^^'• 
not  organized  into  a  complete  science  until  the  time  of 
Eu'clid,  an  Alexandrian  mathematician,  who  lived  soon 
after  the  time  of  Alexander.     Euclid's  geometry  has  been 
in  use  as  a  text-book  within  the  memory  of  people  who  are 
living  to-day. 

Plane  and  spherical  trig-o-nom' e-try  were  studied  and  other 
left  well  developed  by  the  Greeks.    As-tro-nom'i-cal  mathe-  "^^^he- 

^  "^  ^  matical 

matics  was  employed  for  the  study  of  the  heavenly  bodies,   sciences 
Ar-chi-me'des  of  Syracuse  made  a  specialty  of  applied  aj^<^  /^p- 
mathematics.     He  made  many  machines  which  used  the  mathe- 
lever  and  the  multiple  pulley.     He  is  said  to  have  asserted  ^^^^^s. 
that  if  he  could  find  a  resting  place  for  his  lever  he  could 
move  the  earth.     Our  present  science  of  physics  owes  a 
great  deal  to  Archimedes  and  to  some  of  his  successors. 

266.  Astronomy   and    Geography.  —  The   astronomical  The  great 
knowledge  of  the  other  ancients  looks  childish  compared  J^Qj-eek^^ 
with  the  attainments  of  the  Greeks.     A  century  before  scholars, 
the  Persian  Wars  Tha'les  was  predicting  eclipses,  something 

that  the  older  peoples  had  never  attempted.     Soon  after. 


20() 


GrREciCrj 


Greek 
measure- 
ments of 
earth  and 
sun. 


Natural 
science 
under 
Aristotle. 


Medical 
progress. 


Pythagoras  and  his  toUowers  maintained  that  the  earth 
was  a  sphere,  and  liad  motion.  One  later  philosopher 
showed  that  it  revolved  around  the  sun.  Unfortunately 
Aristotle  rejected  the  idea  that  the  earth  has  motion, 
and  scholars  for  two  thousand  years  accepted  his  error. 
Unfortunately  also  a  geographer,  Ptol'e-my,  who  lived 
in  the  second  century  after  Christ,  taught  that  the  sun 
revolves  around  the  earth,  and  this  error,  called  the 
Ptol-e-ma'ic  system,  was  believed  generally  until  the  time 
of  Christopher  Colum])us. 

Not  only  did  the  Greeks  prove  that  the  earth  is  round, 
])ut  one  of  the  great  Alexandrian  scholars,  Er-a-tos'the-nes, 
measured  the  size  of  the  earth. ^  He  estimated  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  earth  as  28,000  miles,  a  remarkably 
accurate  estimate  under  the  circumstances.  A  later 
scholar  determined  the  size  of  the  sun  compared  with  that 
of  the  earth. 

267.  Other  Sciences  among  the  Greeks.  —  If  Aristotle 
was  wrong  about  the  motion  of  the  earth,  he  did  a  great 
deal  for  many  sciences.  His  classification  of  animals 
has  come  down  almost  to  our  own  time  as  the  basis  of 
the  science  of  zo-oVo-gy.  One  of  his  pupils  made  great 
progress  in  the  study  of  bot'a-ny. 

The  Greeks  were  intensely  interested  in  the  human  body. 
They  thought  too  much  of  it  to  dissect  it,  but  they  were 
quite  well  acquainted  with  its  anatomy.  One  Greek, 
Hip-poc'ra-tes,  the  father  of  medicine,  studied  the  laws  of 
health  and  the  laws  of  disease.  He  abandoned  super- 
stition absolutely,  in  his  study  of  medicine,  for  he  be- 
lieved that  diseases  followed  natural  laws  and  were  not 
due  to  evil  spirits. 

We  can  see  from  this  brief  survey  of  Greek  science  how 


^  Eratosthenes'  method  was  a  combination  of  two  processes.  He 
examined  the  length  of  shadows  at  the  two  solstices  and  he  measured 
angles  at  two  points  in  Egypt  5000  stadia  apart. 


SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM  207 

much  we  owe  to  the  Greeks.     For  ten  centuries  after  their  Our  debt 
time  the  western  world  added  practically  nothing  to  the  ^  *\® 
scientific  attamments  of  the  Greeks.  science  is 

very  great. 

Spread  of  Hellenism 

268.  Eastward  Spread  of  Hellenism.  —  If  this  attrac-  The  east- 
tive  culture  and  fine  civilization  had  beeun  and  ended  ^^^  Medi- 

^  terranean 

with  the  Greeks,  we  should  find  it  interesting  but  not  was  a  Greek 
important.      No   other  civilization  has   been  spread  more  "^o^^^;  . 

^  _  ^  combining 

widely.     With  the  conquests  of  Alexander  Greek  culture  Greek  and 
and   learning   were   carried   by   him   and   his   successors  oriental 

^  ^  civihza- 

(§§  206,  209)  to  all  parts  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean  tions. 
basin  and  to  some  extent  into  Asia.  When  we  consider 
the  character  of  the  civilization  of  Pergamum,  of  Rhodes, 
of  Antioch  and  of  Alexandria  in  the  Hellenistic  Age,  we 
must  realize  that  at  least  the  cities  of  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean coast  were  Greek  rather  than  oriental.  When  we 
observe  that  Greek  was  the  language  of  the  eastern  Medi- 
terranean basin,  that  a  Greek  philosophy,  Sto'i-cism,  was 
the  religion  of  southern  Asia  Minor  and  that  it  prepared 
the  way  for  Christianity  among  the  "  gentiles,"  we  can 
understand  perhaps  how  important  to  the  world  was  the 
spread  of  Hellenism  over  the  eastern  Mediterranean 
basin. 

269.  Western  Greek  Civilization  before  the  ''Fall"  of   The  Greek 
Greece.  —  It  is  very  easy  to  forget  that  the  peninsula  Xded^the 
of  Greece  was  only  one  of  the  homes  of  the  Greeks.     The  western 
Greeks  have  been  identified  so  long  simply  with  the  pe-    '^^^  ^" 
ninsula  of  Greece  and  the  Greeks  proper  have  been  studied 

so  much  from  the  standpoint  of  Athens,  that  the  Greeks 
of  the  West  have  been  overlooked.  What  has  been  said 
in  this  chapter  of  the  Greeks  applies  not  only  to  the  Athe- 
nians but  to  the  western  as  well  as  the  Asiatic  and  the  penin- 
sular Greeks.     As  we  noticed,  these  western  cities  were 


208 


GREECE 


The  west- 
ern Greeks 
carried 
Greek 
civilization 
to  Italy 
and  the 
West. 


Greek 
treasures 
and  Greek 
slaves  in 
Rome. 


Rome 
learned 
from  Alex- 
andria 
science, 
literature, 
religion. 


famous  for  their  laws,  their  governments  and  their  material 
development. 

These  western  Greek  cities  wvro  not  only  centres  of 
Greek  culture  and  learning  in  the  West.  They  carried 
Greek  civihzation  to  their  neighbors.  The  E-trus'cans 
(§  283)  borrowed  the  Greek  alphabet  and  many  other 
Greek  ideas,  probably  getting  most  of  them  from  Cumse. 
The  Romans  learned  from  the  Etruscans  and  also  from 
the  western  Greek  cities  which  they  conquered,  or  with 
which  they  were   allied. 

270.  Influence  of  Rome's  Conquests  of  Greece  upon 
Rome.  —  ^lost  of  the  Greek  culture  of  Rome  and  the 
western  Roman  world  came  after  the  conquest  of  Greece 
in  146  B.C.  It  came  from  two  sources,  Greece  itself  and 
Alexandria.  Even  before  the  final  conquest  of  Greece  an 
immense  amount  of  Greek  treasure  was  carried  to  Rome  as 
booty  by  soldiers  and  commanders.  Even  the  upright 
iE-mil'i-us  PauFus  carried  away  250  wagons  of  paintings 
and  statues.  When  Corinth  was  destroyed  in  146  b.c, 
Greece  was  made  into  a  Roman  dependency  (§  323),  a 
much  greater  amount  of  booty  was  taken  to  the  western 
capital  and  tens  of  thousands  of  educated  Greeks  were 
taken  to  Rome  as  captives.  As  Morey  well  says,  Greek 
culture  "  was  borne  into  Asia  on  the  chariot  of  a  conqueror, 
while  it  was  brought  into  Italy  in  the  chains  of  a  captive.^' 
These  educated  Greek  slaves  and  thousands  of  free  Greeks 
who  voluntarily  emigrated  to  Rome  taught  the  Romans 
Greek  ways,  so  that  it  became  the  fashion  to  do  every- 
thing as  the  Greeks  did  them,  from  the  fastening  of  a  cloak 
to  the  writing  of  a  poem  or  the  building  of  a  temple. 

271.  Greek  Culture  in  the  Roman  Empire.  —  Even 
more  Greek  influence  was  exerted  upon  Rome  by  Alex- 
andria, for  Alexandria  was  the  greatest  centre  of  Greek 
learning  at  this  time.  Roman  writers  imitated  the  second 
rate  Alexandrian  literature.     Rome  borrowed  from  Alex- 


SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM  209 

andria  Greek  culture,  religions  half  Greek  and  half  Egyp- 
tian, and  a  luxury  that  was  really  oriental.  The  Romans 
were  not  an  intellectual  people  and  their  intellectual  at- 
tainments, in  philosophy,  science  and  the  principles  of 
equity,  were  really  Greek. 

The  western  Mediterranean  was  never  a  Greek  world  The  minor 
like  the  eastern.     It  was  too  practical  and  too  uncultured  ^y^Qreek^^ 
ever  to  absorb  the  spirit  of  Greek  culture.     So  the  western  culture  in 
Mediterranean  remained  a  Roman  world,  but  a  Roman  *  ^     ^^^" 
world  in  which  Greek  philosophy,  Greek  literature  and 
Greek  ideas  played  an  important  part. 

272.  Greek   in    the    Middle    Ages.  —  Greek    influence  How  Greek 
reached     the    western     Europe    of    the     Middle     Ages  ^"^^""^'^f 
through  three  channels;    (1)  through  the  Romans  whose  the  West 
civilization  was  borrowed  by  the  Germans  and  survived  ^^mTand 
in  many  forms ;  (2)  through  the  eastern  Roman  empire.   Constan- 
Constantinople  kept  alive  the  learning  of  the  Greek  world,  t^'^op^®- 
for  her  libraries  and  schools  were  famous. 

(3)  The  Middle  Ages  learned  more  through  the  Mos'lems  The  spread 
who  conquered  Egypt,  the  south  shore  of  the  Mediterra-  f^J^^^^^^^j^ 
nean,  Sicily  and  Spain  during  the  seventh  century  after  developed 
Christ.     Like  all  Semitic  peoples,  these  Arabs  were  skilled  ^^gj^gj^^g 
at  taking  the  civilization  of  another  people  and  using  it  to  Sicily 
to  good  advantage.     The  Moslems  borrowed  Greek  learn-  ^^^  ^p^^^- 
ing,  and  they,  added  to  it  algebra,  chemistry  and  other 
sciences.     Through    their    schools    in    Spain    and    Sicily 
western  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages  learned  these  subjects, 
and  became  interested  in  Aristotle.     Aristotle  was  studied 
with  so  much  zeal  and  so  little  discretion  that  the  scho- 
las'ti-cism  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which  was  connected  with 
the  study  of  Aristotle,  was  a  rather  dry  and  profitless 
kind  of  learning. 

273.  Greek  Influence  in  Later  History.  —  In  the  later 
Middle  Ages,  the  Turks  invaded  the  eastern  Roman 
empire   and   threatened   the  capture  of   Constantinople. 


210 


GREECE 


Spread  of 
Greek 
learning  by 
scholars 
from  the 
East  (loth 
centur>-) . 


Study  of 
the  Greek 
language 
and  Greek 
culture  in 
modern 
times. 


Great  numbers  of  scholars,  carrying  manuscripts,  went  to 
western  Europe,  especially  Italy,  where  they  taught  in 
the  universities.  They  interested  people  in  the  Greek 
manuscripts  and  in  Greek  "science.  The  idea  that  the 
earth  was  round  was  revived,  so  that  Christopher  Co- 
lumbus dared  to  make  a  voyage  into  the  western  seas  in 
search  of  the  Indies.  A  passion  for  the  study  of  Greek 
revived  in  this  period,  known  as  the  Renaissance. 

The  study  of  Greek  literature  and  philosophy  will  be 
pursued  as  long  as  there  is  higher  education.  The  study  of 
these  subjects  in  the  original  Greek  may  not  be  pursued 
so  faithfully,  for  the  Greek  language  does  not  have  the 
place  in  our  high  school  curricula  that  it  had  two  genera- 
tions ago,  or  even  one  generation  ago.  We  do  not  need  a 
knowledge  of  the  Greek  language,  however,  to  show  us 
how  much  we  owe  to  the  Greeks,  for  it  njust  be  clear  to 
every  one  who  has  read  this  chapter  that  the  Greeks  were 
the  great  teachers  to  the  world  of  art  and  the  intellectual 
sciences. 

General  References 

Duruy,  History  of  Greece,  IV. 
Myers,  Ancient  History,  294-348. 

Morey,  Outlines  of  Greek  History,  149-164,  193-262,  287-298, 
320-333,  346-354. 

Tucker,  Life  in  Ancient  Athens. 

Gulick,  The  Life  of  the  Ancient  Greeks. 

Zimmern,  The  Greek  Commonwealth. 

Mahaffy,  What  have  the  Greeks  done  for  Modern  Civilization? 

Whihley  (ed.),  A  Companion  to  Greek  Studies. 


Topics 

The  Governmen't  of  Athens  :  West,  Ancient  World,  revised, 
201-207;  Whibley  (ed.).  Companion  to  Greek  Studies,  360-368; 
Wilson,  The  State,  64-89 ;    Ferguson,  Greek  Imperialism,  49-65. 

The  Sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  :  Tarbell,  History  of 
Greek  Art,  190-199;  Fowler  and  Wheeler,  Greek  Archeology, 
237-245;    Weller,  Athens  and  Its  Monuments,  283-302. 


SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM  211 

Socrates  :  Fling,  Source  Book  of  Greek  History,  240-250 ; 
Cotterill,  Ancient  Greece,  371-382 ;  Murray,  Ancient  Greek 
Literature,  170-177. 

Studies 

1.  Slavery  in  Greece.     Whibley   (ed.),   Companion  to   Greek 
Studies,  416-422. 

2.  Greek  clothing.     Gulick,  Life  of  the  Ancient  Greeks,  153- 
162. 

3.  Pictures  of  Greek  school  life.     Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient 
History,  I,  251-257. 

4.  Marriage  and  the  home  among  the  Greeks.     Gulick,  Life 
of  the  Ancient  Greeks,  119-126. 

5.  Religions,  prophecy  and  mysteries.     Whibley  (ed.),  Com- 
panion  of  Greek  Studies,  339-345. 

6.  A  meeting  of  the  Athenian  assembly.     Davis,  Readings  in 
Ancient  History,  I,  234-237. 

7.  ^schylus,  "The  Persians."     Fling,  Source  Book  of  Greek 
History,  122-126. 

8.  Selections  from  Aristophanes.     Botsford,  Source  Book  of 
Ancient  History,  196-202. 

9.  Polybius  on  the  end  of  Greek  freedom.     Botsford,  Source 
Book  of  Ancient  History,   389-394. 

10.  Demosthenes.     "On   the   Crown." 

11.  The  Greek  theatre.  Whibley  (ed.),  Companion  of  Greek 
Studies,  332-339. 

12.  Stories  of  Socrates.  Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient  His- 
tory, I,  240-245. 

13.  Aristotle.     Williams,  Every  Day  Science,  I,  182-188. 

14.  Alexandrian  science.  Williams,  Every  Day  Science,  I, 
189-194,  225-233. 

15.  Phidias  and  the  Parthenon.     Reinach,  Apollo,  47-55. 

16.  The  Parthenon.  Weller,  Athens  and  Its  Monuments, 
270-283. 

17.  Hellenistic  and  Roman  agora  of  Athens.  Weller,  Athens 
and  Its  Monuments,  130-149. 

18.  Hellenistic  sculpture.  Fowler  and  Wheeler,  Handbook  of 
Greek  Archeology,  274-292. 

19.  Spread  of  Greek  culture.  Morey,  Outlines  of  Greek  His- 
tory, 320-323,  346-353. 

20.  Commerce  and  industry  among  the  Greeks.  Whibley 
(ed.),  Companion  to  Greek  Studies,  428-433. 


212  GREECE 


Questions 

1.  Name  the  three  classes  of  people  living  in  Greece,  and  show 
what  privileges  or  disabilities  each  had. 

2.  Were  women  freer  in  early  primitive  communities  than  they 
were  in  highly  developed  societies  like  those  of  Babylonia  and 
Greece  ?     If  so,  how  do  you  account  for  that  fact  ? 

3.  What  is  the  object  of  education  ?  Did  the  Greek  educa- 
tion serve  to  prepare  the  children  for  life  ?  Was  it  one-sided  ? 
Was  it  interesting  ?     Was  it  practical  ? 

4.  Tell  about  sacrifices  among  the  Greeks.  Were  the  Greeks 
a  religious  people  ?  How  were  their  moral  standards  different 
from  our  own  ?     Were  they  more  or  less  civilized  than  we  are  ? 

5.  What  is  a  state  ?  a  government  ?  an  aristocracy  ?  a  democ- 
racy ?  a  citizen  ?  a  subject  ?  What  are  civil  rights  ?  political 
privileges  ?  codes  of  laws  ? 

6.  Did  small  citj^-states  favor  democracy  or  monarchy  ? 
Were  the  Greeks  more  or  less  self-governing  than  the  American 
people  ? 

7.  Name  the  four  successive  forms  of  Greek  city-state  govern- 
ment. Name  the  four  successive  steps  in  the  development  of 
the  Greek  idea  of  citizenship. 

8.  In  what  did  the  excellence  of  Greek  literature  consist  ? 
Name  two  early  poets,  two  dramatists  and  two'  historians,  giv- 
ing the  name  of  an  important  work  of  each. 

9.  What  philosopher  discovered  truth  by  questioning  ?  What 
two  philosophers  founded  important  religions  ?  Who  was  the 
great  philosopher  of  ideas  ?  Who  was  the  most  learned  phi- 
losopher and  scientist  of  the  ancient  world  ?  What  city  was 
most  famous  for  its  science  in  the  Hellenistic  period  ? 

10.  What  debt  do  we  owe  to  the  Greeks  in  government  ?  in 
science  ?  in  art  ? 

11.  What  is  the  Parthenon?  Name  two  Greek  sculptors  of 
the  Hellenic  period;  three  famous  statues  of  the  Hellenistic 
period ;  three  famous  Greek  buildings  outside  of  Athens. 

12.  When  and  how  was  Greek  culture  extended  to  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  coasts  ?  to  Sicily  and  southern  Italy  ?  to 
Rome?  to  western  Europe? 

13.  Point  out  at  least  two  radical  differences  between  the  so- 
cial classes  of  Greece  and  those  of  the  United  States. 

14.  What  privileges  and  responsibilities  have  American  women 
that  were  not  possessed  by  the  women  of  Greece? 


SPREAD   OF  HELLENISM  213 

15.  Compare  the  education  of  a  Greek  boy  or  girl  with  that  of 
boys  and  girls  in  your  school. 

16.  In  modern  life  what  takes  the  place  of  the  sacrifices  of  the 
Greeks? 

17.  What  is  a  pure  democracy  ?  Does  pure  democracy  exist 
in  the  United  States  ? 

18.  The  life  of  Socrates  has  in  it  much  of  interest  and  inspira- 
tion. What  do  you  know  about  him?  Are  you  acquainted  with 
Plato's  picture  of  him  as  given  in  his  Dialogues? 

19.  What  specimens  of  Greek  art  do  you  know  at  sight  ?  Wliat 
do  you  know  about  them  and  which  do  you  like  best  ? 

20.  Compare  the  population  of  Greece  with  that  of  your  own 
state. 

21.  Compare  the  area  of  Greece  with  that  of  your  own  state. 

22.  A  well-known  American  scholar  once  said,  in  speaking  of 
the  attainments  of  the  Greeks  :  "  A  pigmy  standing  on  the  shoul- 
ders of  a  giant  can  see  farther  than  the  giant  but  he  remains  a 
pigmy  just  the  same."    What  do  you  think  he  meant? 


214 


CIREECE 


Chronological  Table 


The  Near  East 


The  West 


Events  IN  Greek  History 


B.C. 

753  (§  282)  Founding 

776  First  Olympic 

Assyrian  Empire 

of  Rome 

Contest 

fiOG  Fall  of  Nineveh 

004   Nebuchadnezzar 

550  Cyrus,  King  of 

Media 

538  Cyrus  in  Babylon 

525  Persian  Conquest 

of  Eg>'pt 

508  Formation  of 

500  Ionic  Revolt 
against  Darius  I 


Persian  Wahs 
479  Mycale  (Battle) 


401   March  of  the 

Thousand 
387  Peace  of 

Antalcidas 


Ten 


333  Issus  (battle) 
332  Tyre  (capture  of) 
332  Founding  of 

Alexandria 
331    Arbela  (battle) 

Empire  of 

Alexander 

301  Ipsus  (battle) 


Republic  (§284) 
494  Secession  to 

Sacred     Mount 

(§286) 
480  Himera  (battle) 

(§  305) 

452  Decemviri  (§  288) 
445  Revolutions  in 

favor   of   pleb.s. 

(§  289) 
415-3  Sicilian 

expedition 
I  405  Empire  of  Diony- 

sius  I  of  Syracuse 

(§305) 
396  Conquest   of   Veii 

(§  293) 

367  Licinian  laws 

(§  289) 
340  Timoleon  the 

liberator  (§  305) 


Agathocles  in  Africa 
343-272   Conquest  of 
Italy  (§  297) 


490  Marathon 

480  Thermopylae, 

Salamis 
479  Platsea 

445  Thirty  Year  Peace 
431-404  Peloponne- 

sian  War 
415  Syracusan  expedi- 
tion 
405  ^gospotomi  • 
404-371  Spartan  su- 
premacy 


371-362  Theban 

supremacy 
Sacred  Wars 


338  Cha^ronea  (battle) 

336-323  Alexander  the 

Great's  conquests 


323  Death  of  Alex- 
ander 

301  Division  of  A's 
Empire 


SPREAD    OF   HELLENISM 


215 


Chronolo(Jical  Table 


Greek  Government 


Lycurgus 


Greek  Literature 


Epic  poems 

Homer 

Hesiod 


Philosophy,  Science 
AND  Art 


621  Draco's  code 


594  Reforms  of  Solon 
Peloponnesian  League 
Early  tyrants 


509  Reforms  of 
Cleisthenes 


477  Confederacy  of 

Delos 
454  Athenian  Empire 


610-565  Sappho 


338  Macedonian 
supervision 


^schylus 

Pindar 

Sophocles 


Euripides 


Aristophanes 


624-546  Thales 


Myron 


The  Sophists 

Phidias 

The  Parthenon 


Socrates 

Plato 

Praxiteles 

Aristotle 

Demosthenes 


216 


GivliiJljCIii 


Chronological  Table  (Continued) 


The  Near  East 

The  West    ^ 

Events  in  Greek  History 

Alexandrian  Kingdoms 

287  Hortensian  law 
(equalization  of 
the  orders)  (§  290) 

265-241    First    Punic 
War.      Sicily,     first 
Roman  Province 
(§311) 

217-202    Hannibal  — 
Second  Punic  War 

216  Cannae  (battle) 

Gauls  invade  Greece 

(§  315) 

211-205  First  Mace- 

207 Metaurus  (battle) 

donian  War 

(§  347) 

Conquest  of  Antiochus, 

202  Zama  (§318) 

the  Great  (§  320) 

Increase  of  wealth 

200-197  Second 

and  corruption  in 

Macedonian  War 

Humiliation  of  Rhodes 

Rome  (§  323- 

168  Pydna  (§  319) 

(§321) 

331) 

146  Destruction  of 

146  Destruction  of 

Carthage  (§  322) 

Corinth  (end  of 

146  Establishment    of 

Greek  "inde- 

Roman supremacy 

pendence") 

in  the  Mediter- 

ranean (§  323) 

■ 

SPREAD    OF   HELLENISM 


217 


Chronological  Table  {Continued) 


Greek  Government 

Greek  Literature 

Philosophy,  Science 
AND  Art 

Menander  and  the  new 

Sarcophagus  of  King  of 

comedy 

Sidon 

Alexandrian  school 

Euclid 

280  Achaean  league 

formed 

Winged  Victory  of 

^tolian  league 

Samothrace 
Eratosthenes 

Apollo  Belvidere 
Venus  de  Milo 

B.   ROME 


CHAPTER   IX 


Succession 
of  civiliza- 
tions. 


EARLY    ROME    (TO  264  B.C.) 

274.  The  World  Movements  of  Ancient  Times.  —  Be- 
fore 500  B.C.  the  Tigris-Euphrates  basin  and  Egypt  were 
the  centres  of  the  greatest  movements  in  world  history. 
For  three  centuries  after  500  B.C.  Greece  held  the  centre 
of  the  stage.  Then  Rome  came  to  the  front,  and,  for 
six  centuries,  there  was  very  little  history  unconnected 
with  Rome.  Before  considering  the  part  played  by  Rome 
as  a  world  state  (Part  III)  we  must  study  the  geography  of 
Rome  and  Italy,  the  Roman  people  and  their  rise  to  the  po- 
sition of  the  first  power  in  the  western  Mediterranean. 


Shape, 
position 
and  defence 
of  Italy. 


The  western 
slope  of 
the  Ap- 
ennines. 


Geography 

275.  Geography.  —  Italy  is  a  long  narrow  peninsula 
extending  south  from  Europe  almost  across  the  centre  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is  protected  from  invaders  on 
the  north  by  the  high  Alps  mountains.  The  northern 
end  of  the  peninsula  is  a  wide,  fertile  valley,  that  of  the 
Po  river,  which  played  a  surprisingly  small  part  in  the 
history  of  the  ancient  world. 

Italy  proper  is  divided  by  the  Ap' en-nines  mountains 
into  a  western  slope,  which  is  long  and  narrow,  and  a 
southern  slope,  facing  the  gulf  of  Ta-ren'tum.  Because 
of  our  previous  study  of  "  Great  Greece "  our  interest 
now  centres  in  the  western  slope  of  the  Apennines. 

276.  Political  Divisions  of  Italy.  —  The  valley  of  the 
Po  was  called  Cis'al'pine  Gaul.     The  rest  of  the  peninsula 

218 


^  ITALY  V 

Miles 
')     2()    40     Co    60  100 


Greek  Colon  ies  \ |    Phocniciun  Colon  ies\        I 

^4' 16"  is' 


GEOGRAPHY  219 


from  the  river  Rub'i-con  south  was  called  Italy  in  ancient  important 

districts 
peoples. 


times.     The  western  slope  of  the  Apennines  in  the  north  districts  of 


was  known  as  E-tru'ri-a.  The  slope  south  of  Etruria  and 
south  of  the  river  Tiber  was  called  La'ti-um.  South  of 
Latium  was  Cam-pa'ni-a.  Inland  from  Latium  lived  the 
Sahines,  and  inland  from  Campania  dwelt  the  Sarnnites. 
These  districts  and  peoples  were  historically  the  most 
important  in  the  peninsula. 

277.   The  Geography  of  Rome.  —  On  the  western  slope   Rome  and 
of  the  Apennines  there  are  a  few  comparatively  small   gf^  ^^f ^^" 
rivers.     The    largest   of    these,    which  is    in   almost   the  the  Apen- 
middle  of  the  slope  from  north  to  south,  is  the  Ti'her.     It  ^^°^^- 
is  clear  then  that  this  western  slope  of   the  Apennines 
is  practically  the  peninsula  of  Italy,  and  that  the  Tiber 
valley  is   the   central   and   commanding  valley  of  that 
western  slope. 
-About  eighteen  miles  back  from  the  coast  on  the  Tiber  Advantages 
river,  there  is  a  ford  where  the  people  were  in  the  habit   commerce °^ 
of  crossing  from  the  plains  south  to  the  hill  slopes  north  and  de- 
of  Rome.     At  this  point  there  are,  near  the  left  bank,    ®"^^* 
seven  hills,  rising  out  of  somewhat  swampy  valleys.     Two 
of  these  hills  were  close  to  the  ford,  and  were  very  steep, 
so  that  they  were  easily  defended.     These  are  now  known 
as  the  Cap'i-tol-ine  and  the  Pal'a-tine  hills,  because  the 
Roman  capitol  and  the  palaces  of  the  Cae'sars  afterward 
stood  on  their  heights.     This  then  was  Rome,  a  city  of 
seven  hills  which  could  be  defended,  near  a  ford  which 
was  used  as  a  commercial  highway  from  north  to  south 
and  back  far  enough  from  the  coast  to  afford  protection 
from  pirates,   yet  near  enough   so   that   trading  vessels 
might  come  up  the  Tiber  river. 

278.   Commanding  Position  of  Rome  and  Italy  in  the   tion^Umion 
Mediterranean.  —  The     diverse     mountain     ridges     and  was  easier 
numerous  peninsulas  of  Greece  kept  Greece  from  develop-  ^^an^in 
ing  into  a  nation.     In  Italy  the  western  slope  of  the  Apen-  Greece. 


220 


ROME 


From  Italy 
to  the 
whole 
Mediter- 


The  quali- 
ties that 
made  the 
old  Ro- 
mans suc- 
cessful. 


nines,  covering  most  of  the  peninsula,  made  national 
union  easy.  Greece  faced  the  East  and  was  forced  to  keep 
out  eastern  invaders.  Italy  faced  the  newer  and  less 
developed  West.  She  was  left  free  to  become  united 
before  foreign  foes  pressed  upon  her,  for  she  was  pro- 
tected by  the  Apennines  on  the  east  and  by  the  Alps  on 
the  north.  It  was  natural  moreover  that  Italy  should 
be  united  by  the  city  that  controlled  the  central  valley 
of  the  western  slope,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  that  city  was 
Rome. 

279.  Steps  in  the  Expansion  of  Rome.  —  Once  in  con- 
trol of  the  western  slope  of  the  Apennines  and  of  Italy, 
Rome  naturally  reached  out  to  Sicily.  Holding  Italy 
and  Sicily,  her  commanding  position  at  the  centre  of  the 
Mediterranean  gave  her  access  to  northern  Africa,^  to 
Greece,  to  Egypt,  to  Asia,  and  to  western  Europe.  The 
character  of  the  Mediterranean  basin  (§  158)  made  pos- 
sible a  single  Mediterranean  state  covering  the  whole 
basin.  The  geography  of  Italy  and  Rome  gave  Rome  an 
excellent  chance  to  form,  as  she  did,  that  powerful  world- 
state. 

The  Romans  before  510  B.C. 

280.  An  Old  Roman.  —  The  Romans  had  no  very  great 
geographical  advantages,  however,  over  the  people  of 
Syracuse  or  of  Carthage.  Their  real  advantage  was  one 
of  character.  We  sometimes  hear  a  person  called  an  old 
Roman.  What  does  the  term  mean?  If  the  man  is 
really  like  the  old  Romans,  it  means  that  he  is  plain  and 
crude,  living  a  life  of  Spartan  simplicity ;  that  he  works 
hard  on  his  Uttle  farm  ;  that  he  rules  his  household  sternly 
and  with  a  keen  sense  of  justice;  that  he  loves  fighting 
and  does  not  mind  long  marches.  In  short,  it  means  that 
he  is  a  plain,  practical,  austere  son  of  the  people,  honest 
and  moral,  who  despises  luxury,  who  hates  effeminacy 


THE   ROMANS  BEFORE  510  B.C. 


221 


and  who  never  knows  when  he  is  beaten.^    It  means  that 
he  is  stohd,  sturdy  and  determined. 

281.  The  Roman  Family.  —  In  Rome  the  family  was 
important,  as  in  Greece  (§  133).  In  both  it  was  the 
basis  of  religion  and  of  the  state.  In  early  Rome  however 
the  family  was  important  in  itself.  The  father  {pater 
familias)  had  almost  absolute  authority.  He  was  head 
of  the  family,  high  priest  and  judge.  If  his  wife  committed 
a  crime,  he  would  decide  the  punishment  and  the  courts 
would  accept  his  decision.  The  old  Roman  father  would 
punish  his  wife  or  his  son  as  dispassionately  as  any  out- 
sider could  have  done.  That  was  because  he  was  an  old 
Roman.  The  Roman  family  was  very  different  from  the 
Greek  in  many  ways,  however.  The  women  might  be 
absolutely  under  the  control  of  the  father,  but  the  mother 
had  a  position  of  dignity  and  of  comparative  freedom, 
which  the  Greek  wife  did  not  have.  Roman  family  ties 
were  very  strong.  Divorce  was  unknown  before  the  close 
of  the  first  Punic  War  (§  313),  and  immorahty  was  un- 
common. 

282.  Roman  Religion.  —  The  high  moral  standard  of 
the  early  Romans  was  a  result  of  character  and  of  custom, 
not  of  religion.  The  first  Romans  had  an  exceedingly 
primitive  nature  religion,  in  which  the  gods  were  powers 
of  nature  that  resided  in  stones  or  trees  or  waterfalls. 
These  gods  must  be  appeased.  Therefore,  the  Roman 
made  his  sacrifices  so  that  the  wrath  of  the  gods  should  be 
averted  and  the  favor  of  the  gods  be  gained.  When  he 
did  this,  he  was  careful  to  go  through  the  correct  forms. 

The  early  Roman  might  be  said  to  have  worshipped 
form.     When  he  made  a  contract,  or  brought  a  suit  at 


Absolute 
legal  au- 
thority of 
the  father, 
with  real 
freedom 
for  the 
mother. 


Crude 
beliefs  of 
the  early 
Romans. 


^  The  fact  that  the  Roman  was  plain  and  practical  is  illustrated  by 
this  text,  the  letters  of  which  are  called  Roman.  If  we  compare  this 
plain,  square  Roman  type  with  the  ornate  Greek,  German  or  old  English 
letters,  we  can  see  how  practical  the  Roman  was. 


222 


ROME 


Importance 
of  form  to 
the  Ro- 


The  house- 
hold duties 
of  later 
times. 


The  Etrus- 
can civil- 
ization, 
with  Baby- 
lonian and 
Greek  ele- 
ments. 


law,  or  offered  a  sacrifice,  the  important  thing  was  the 
form ;  that  is,  the  way  in  which  it  was  done.  The  act 
itself  was  incidental.  If  a  Roman  had  finished  half  of  a 
religious  ceremony  and  left  out  a  word,  he  would  begin 

again,  for  the  first  ceremony  was 
of  no  value.  The  earh'  Roman 
was  exceedingly  superstitious. 
He  believed  in  omens  and  he 
gladly  learned  from  his  Etruscan 
neighbors,  on  the  north,  to  study 
the  flight  of  birds  or  the  en- 
trails of  victims  sacrificed  on  the 
altars. 

In  later  times,  when  the  Roman 
moved  to  a  new  house,  he  took 
with  him  his  household  gods,  his 
goddess  of  the  hearth  and  his 
other  household  deities,  some  of 
which  later  were  called  the  La'res 
and  Pe-na'tes.  When  we  some- 
times speak  figuratively  of  our 
Lares  and  Penates,  we  refer  to 
the  embodiment  of  the  spirit  of 
our  home. 

283.  The  Etruscans.  —  Among  the  peoples  of  Italy 
north  of  the  Greek  cities  before  510  B.C.  only  one ,  the 
E-trus'cans,  had  a  well-developed  civilization.  They  un- 
derstood the  use  of  the  arch  and  of  drainage,  they  paved 
roads,  and  it  was  from  them  that  Roman  religion  acquired 
the  method  of  divination  through  an  inspection  of  the 
liver. ^  They  kept  up  their  interest  in  Greek  things  by 
trading  with  the  Greek  cities  of  south  Italy.     For  several 

1  This  "  Babylonian  "  civilization  was  probably  brought  to  Etruria  by 
those  Etruscans  who  came  from  Asia  Minor.  They  exhibited  a  similar 
acquaintance  with  Greek  mythology  anrf  early  Greek  learning. 


Vestal  Virgin. 


THE   ROMANS   BEFORE   510  B.C. 


223 


Sacred  Chickens. 


centuries  they  were  the  most  powerful  people  of  Italy  and 
in  fact  of  the  western  Mediterranean.  They  ruled  Etruria 
and  gained  control 
of  cities  farther 
south,  especially 
Rome.  Wherever 
they  went  they 
built  walls  and 
drains  and  public 
buildings,  and  in- 
troduced some  of 
their  civilization. 
Rome  owed  the 
Etruscans  a  great 
debt. 

284.  The  Regal 
Period  of  Rome.  — 
The  early  history 
of  Rome  is  legendary,  and  it  is  difficult  to  discover  the 
truth  about  early  events.  According  to  legend  Rome  was 
founded  in  753  B.C.  by  Rom'u-lus,  who  had  been  ''  ex- 
posed "  with  his  twin-brother  Re'mus,  had  been  nursed 
by  a  wolf  and  brought  up  by  a  shepherd.  Romulus  was 
the  first  of  seven  mythical  kings,  who  ruled  until  a  re- 
public was  established  in  510  b.c.  Of  course  there  must 
have  been  more  than  the  sacred  and  mystical  number 
seven,  but,  as  we  know  little  about  any  of  them,  it  does 
not  matter. 

According  to  tradition,  which  in  this  case  may  represent 
a  fact,  the  last  kings  of  Rome  were  Etruscan  princes.  The 
Etruscan  princes  apparently  were  men  of  ability  and  in- 
fluence. Tradition  relates  that  they  drained  the  swamps, 
especially  by  building  an  immense  drain  or  sewer  called 
the  Max'i-ma  clo-a'ca.  They  undoubtedly  did  construct 
numerous  pubhc  buildings,  built  a  wall  around  the  most 


Legendary 
founding 
of  Rome. 


Progress  of 
Rome  under 
the  last,  or 
Etruscan, 
kings. 


224 


ROME 


Military 
and  politi- 
cal organ- 
ization of 
Rome. 


important  hills,  introduced  Etruscan  customs  and  Greek 
and  Etruscan  civilization.  These  kings  ruled  not  only 
the  city  of  Rome  but  much  of  the  surrounding  country. 
285.  Co-mi'ti-a  Cen-tu-ri-a'ta.  —  The  Romans  were 
originally  organized  in  tribes,  on  a  religious  basis,  like 
that  of  the  Greeks  (§  133).  The  Etruscans  introduced  a 
new  system,  based  on  wealth.  The  army  was  made  up 
of  centuries,  or  hundreds,  and  a  popular  assembly  (called 
"  co-mi'ti-a  ")  was  held  in  which  the  people  voted  by 
centuries.  The  wealthy  men  of  the  infantry  and  the 
cavalry  {"  equites  ")  had  more  than  half  of  the  votes,  al- 
though the  poorer  soldiers  outnumbered  them  many 
times.  This  assembly  of  the  centuries,  which  met  outside 
the  city  in  a  military  field  called  the  Campus  Martius, 
lasted  for  several  hundred  years. 


The  ex- 
pulsion of 
the  kings  by 
the  aristoc- 
racy in- 
jures Rome. 


Patrician 
control  of 
the  comitia 
centuriata. 


The  Struggle  of  the  Classes  (510-287  b.c.) 

286.  The  Establishment  of  the  Republic.  —  In  510  B.C. 
the  Roman  aristocrats,  called  the  pa-tri'cians,  drove  out 
the  Etruscan  princes  and  established  a  republic.  This 
republic  was,  of  course,  ruled  by  the  patricians  for  their 
own  benefit.  They  did  not  treat  the  common  people,  the 
ple-he'ians,  as  well  as  the  kings  had  done,  for  the  kings 
needed  the  support  of  the  common  people  against  the 
aristocracy.  In  addition,  Rome  lost  her  influence  over 
her  immediate  neighbors,  who  had  supported  the  Etrus- 
cans but  refused  to  support  the  patricians. 

287.  The  Government  of  the  Early  Republic.  —  The 
republic  was  governed  by  the  patricians  through  the  as- 
sembly of  the  centuries,  and  through  a  senate,  and  through 
magistrates.  As  we  have  seen,  voting  in  the  assembly  of 
the  centuries  was  controlled  by  the  wealthy  citizens.  The 
assembly  had  considerable  power.  It  made  the  laws 
and  decided  whether  there  should  be  war  or  peace. 


THE   STRUGGLE   OF  THE   CLASSES  225 

The  sen'ate  was  made  up  of  the  most   influential  pa-  Organiza- 
tricians.     It    met    more    frequently    than    the    assembly  *^^^  ^^^, 

powsr  of 

and  it  really  discussed  public  affairs.     When  the  assembly  the  senate. 
made  laws  or  decided  matters  it  probably  only  ratified 
the  decision  of  the  senate. 

Every  year  the  assembly  elected  two  chief  magistrates  Magis- 

called  con'suls}     These  men  enforced  the  laws  and  com-  tf^t^s  under 

manded  the  army  on  alternate  days.     In  time  of  great  republic, 
danger  a  dic-ta'tor  was  elected  military  commander,  with 
absolute  power  for  a  period  of  not  more  than  six  months. ^ 

288.  Troubles  of  the  Plebs.  —  With  the  patricians  in  The  cam- 
absolute  control  of  the  government,  the  plebs  (the  name  P^igns  for 
used  for  the  plebeians  as  a  class)  were  worse  off  than  be-  of  Rome 
fore.     After  the   expulsion   of  the   kings,    Rome   fought  ^^*^f  ^^P 

made  the 

almost  contmuously  with  her  neighbors  who  sympathized  plebeians 
with  the  Etruscan  princes.  The  Roman  army  was  in  the  debtors. 
field  most  of  every  summer.  This  meant  that  the  plebeian 
farmers  left  their  crops,  which  suffered  from  lack  of  care 
and  from  the  depredations  of  the  enemy.  The  more  the 
plebs  fought,  the  deeper  they  came  into  the  debt  of  the 
rich  patricians,  who  were  glad  to  lend  them  money.  Ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  that  time,  as  before  the  time  of  Solon 
in  Athens  (§  152),  debtors  who  could  not  pay  their  debts 
became  slaves.  • 

289.  The  Plebs  gain  Tribunes  and  an  Assembly.  —  In  The  first 
494  the  plebs  seceded  to  the  Sacred  Mount  just  outside   secession 
of  the  city.     They  refused  to  return  to  Rome  until  the  pa-  nomic  and 
tricians  gave  them  relief.    An  agreement  was  drawn  up  pro-  pojiticai 
viding  that  thereafter  no  debtor  was  to  be  sold  as  a  slave. 

The  plebs  were  to  elect  yearly  two  officials  called  trib'unes 
who  could  say  ''  veto  "  (I  forbid),  if  a  magistrate  tried  to 

^  The  consuls  were  preceded  by  lictors  with  axes,  as  was  a  victorious 
conqueror.    See  e.g.  the  lictors  preceding  Caesar,  in  the  illustration,  p.  233. 

2  There  were  other  officials,  including  a  rex  (king),  who  had  religious 
duties,  as  the  Athenian  king-archon  had  (§  150). 


226 


ROME 


The  plebe- 
ians gain  a 
written  law, 
the  XII 
tables. 


The  plebs 
gain  more 
offices  and 
new  politi- 
cal and 
social 
rights. 


enforce  any  harsh  law  against  a  plel^eian.^  The  persons 
of  the  tribunes  were  sacred ;  that  is,  they  could  not  be 
arrested  or  interfered  with  in  any  way.  Some  years 
later  (471  B.C.)  the  plebs  were  allowed  to  hold  a  plebeian 
assembly  of  their  own  to  elect  the  tribunes  and  to  make 
laws  for  themselves. 

290.  The  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables.  —  The  plebs 
found  that  their  assembly  and  their  tribunes  did  not  pro- 
tect them  so  long  as  the  patricians  made  the  laws  and 
elected  the  officials  who  enforced  them.  We  have  already 
noticed  the  importance  of  an  unwritten  law  to  the  govern- 
ing classes  and  of  a  written  law  to  the  people  who  were 
governed.  The  plebs  therefore  demanded  a  written  law. 
After  ten  years  of  agitation  de-cemVirs  (ten  men)  were 
appointed  to  draw  up  a  code  of  laws.  These  laws  were 
in  the  form  of  twelve  tables,  and  are  called  the  laws  of  the 
twelve  tables,  the  "  Magna  charta  of  Roman  liberty."  ^ 
So  important  were  they  considered  that  the  school  boys 
four  centuries  later  were  obliged  to  learn  them. 

291.  Progress  of  the  Plebs.  —  Within  a  few  years 
after  the  granting  of  the  twelve  tables,  a  veritable  revo- 
lution took  place, ^  by  which  the  plebeians  gained  a  great 

1  Tradition  records  that  public  lands  were  given  to  the  plebeians  soon 
after  the  first  secession,  but  although  this  shows  that  other  relief  measures 
were  taken,  it  is  probable  that  there  were  no  public  lands  for  distribution 
until  many  years  after. 

2  Some  of  these  laws  were  as  follows : 

Let  the  father  have  power  over  the  life  and  death  of  his  son.  Let  it 
be  lawful  to  sell  the  son  as  a  slave  three  times.  If  the  father  shall  sell 
the  son  three  times,  let  the  son  be  free  from  his  father. 

Let  no  man  take  more  interest  for  money  than  one  per  cent  a  month. 
If  he  shall  do  otherwise,  let  him  be  fined  four  times  that  sum. 

If  any  one  breaks  the  limb  of  another  and  makes  no  reparation,  let 
retaliation  take  place. 

'  The  tribunes  and  the  assembly  of  the  plebs  became  almost  as  power- 
ful as  the  regular  magistrates  and  assembly.  The  plebs  gained  the  right 
to  interynarrij  with  the  patricians  and  even  to  elect  some  of  the  six  77ulitnry 
tribunes  with  consular  power.     The  senate  decided  each  year  whether 


THE   STRUGGLE   OF   THE   CLASSES 


227 


many  social  privileges  and  political  rights.  Three  quar- 
ters of  a  century  later  the  plebs  asked  for  more  rights,  as 
the  foreign  wars  (§§  295-298)  interfered  with  their  work. 
In  the  Li-cin'i-an  laws  (367  b.c.)  the  rich  patricians  were 
not  allowed  to  monopolize  the  public  lands  as  formerly, 
and  one  of  the  consuls  must  be  a  plebeian.  So  the  plebs 
gained  political  power,  economic  reforms  and  partial 
control  of  the  state  religion  at  one  stroke.^ 

292.  The  Plebs  gain  Political  Equality,  but  the  People  The  plebs 
lose  Political  Power.  —  In  the  next  three  quarters  of  a  s^\^  ^^g^l 

.  .  ^  rights,  but 

century  the  plebeians  gamed  the  right  to  hold  any  office  the  senate 


In  287  the  assembly  of  the  plebs,   ^^^^'^^^ 

•^  ^  '    the  govern- 


or religious  position 

which  was  now  open  to  any  citizen,  was  made  the  official  ment 
assembly  of  the  Roman  people,  and  all  distinctions  be- 
tween plebeians  and  patricians  vanished.  From  this  time 
the  Roman  emblem,  S.  P.  Q.  R.,^  took  on  a  new  meaning. 
But  Rome  had  already  become  mistress  of  Italy  (§  298), 
so  that  the  real  government  belonged  not  to  the  assembly, 
but  to  the  senate,  which  was  now  made  up  of  ex-magis- 
trates. 


The  Conquest  of  Italy  (396-264  b.c.) 

293.  Some  Early  Trials  of  the  Young  Republic.  — 
While  this  great  internal  struggle  was  going  on  for  two 

consuls  or  military  tribunes  should  be  elected.  Only  patricians  could 
be  consuls  but  some  of  the  military  tribunes  might  be  plebeians.  The 
patricians  diminished  the  powers  of  the  consuls  however  by  creating  a 
censor,  who  looked  after  public  works  and  public  morals  and  decided  who 
were  eligible  for  the  senate  and  other  offices. 

1  The  Sib'yl-line  books  were  thereafter  to  be  looked  after  by  plebeians 
as  well  as  patricians.  The  Sibylline  books  were  three  books  that  had  been 
purchased  by  one  of  the  later  kings  from  a  prophetess  of  Cumae.  At 
first  nine  books  were  offered,  but  the  king  demurred  at  the  price.  The 
sibyl  then  destroyed  three,  and  offered  the  others  at  the  same  price. 
Again  the  king  objected  to  the  price,  but  he  finally  paid  the  same  amount 
for  the  last  three.  The  books  contained  oracular  sayings  of  the  Greeks. 
They  were  guarded  carefully  and  consulted  in  times  of  great  danger. 

2  Senatus  Populusque  Romanus  =  The  Roman  senate  and  people. 


Rome's 
struggles 
first  for 
existence, 
then  for 
conquest. 


228 


ROME 


Horatius 
at  the 
bridge. 


Cincinna- 
tus,  the 
dictator. 


Relations 

with 

Latium. 


centuries  between  the  plebeians  and  the  patricians,  Rome, 
during  the  first  century,  was  spending  her  time  in  keeping 
off  her  enemies,  and,  during  the  second,  in  making  herself 
mistress  of  Italy.  Two  of  the  stories  of  the  first  struggles 
of  the  Roman  repu])lic  for  existence  are  worth  our  con- 
sideration, because  of  their  place  in  the  world's  book  of 
lore. 

The  kings  whom  the  Romans  had  expelled  from  Rome 
(510)  appealed  for  help  to  an  Etruscan  king  not  far  from 
Rome.  This  king  advanced  with  his  army  and  seized 
the  hill  across  the  Tiber  from  Rome.  A  bridge  connected 
the  foot  of  this  hill  with  the  city  of  Rome.  To  prevent 
the  Etruscans  from  crossing,  a  brave  young  man,  Ho- 
ra'tius,  with  two  companions  held  the  Etruscan  army  at 
bay,  while  the  Romans  demolished  the  bridge.  In  a  loud 
voice  he  committed  himself  to  the  Tiber,  and,  amid  a 
shower  of  darts,  swam  across  to  his  comrades.  The  Etrus- 
cans w^ere  finally  induced  to  withdraw. 

Another  legend  tells  of  a  Roman  army  surrounded  among 
the  hills,  with  escape  cut  off.  The  senate  met  to  consider 
the  crisis.  Cin-cin-na'tus  was  appointed  dictator  be- 
cause of  the  great  danger.  The  messengers  to  Cincinnatus 
found  the  old  man  plowing  in  his  field.  Leaving  his  plow 
where  it  was,  he  hastened  to  the  city,  gathered  an  army, 
marched  against  the  enemy,  defeated  them,  and  freed  the 
imprisoned  Roman  force.  Returning  to  Rome  without 
delay,  Cincinnatus  laid  down  his  office  at  once,  and  re- 
turned to  his  plowing  sixteen  days  after  he  had  left  it  so 
abruptly.     Cincinnatus  was  an  old  Roman. 

294.  Rome  and  the  Latin  Confederacy  (493-338  B.C.). 
—  After  the  expulsion  of  the  kings  in  510  B.C.  the  Romans 
were  attacked  by  the  friends  of  the  kings  and  by  numerous 
hill  tribes  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Apennines.  In  spite  of 
the  devotion  of  such  men  as  Horatius  and  Cincinnatus 
Rome  hardly  held  her  own  against  these  enemies.     Fortu- 


THE   CONQUEST   OF  ITALY  229 

nately  Rome  gained  allies  among  the  Latin  cities  south  of 
Rome  in  Latium.  These  cities  were  united  in  a  Latin 
Confederacy,  which  aided  Rome  for  a  century  and  a  half, 
until,  jealous  of  the  growing  power  of  Rome,  the  Latin 
cities  tried  to  destroy  Rome.  The  cities  of  the  confederacy 
were  defeated  (338) ;  some  being  incorporated  in  Rome  and 
others  being  made  dependents  of  the  larger  city. 

295.  The   Conquest  of  Veil.  —  The  earhest  conquests  Contest 
of  Rome  were  north  of  the  city  in  Etruria,  not  south  in  with  Veu 

n  ^  for  the 

Latium.     Etruria,  like  the  rest  of  Italy,  was  dotted  with  control  of 
fortified  cities,  each  of  which  controlled  the  country  that  the  Tiber 

valley 

surrounded  it.  The  nearest,  and  one  of  the  strongest  (396  b.c). 
of  these  fortified  cities,  was  the  Etruscan  city  of  Ve'ii, 
which  fought  ^\ath  Rome  for  control  of  the  Tiber  valley. 
After  several  years  of  a  life  and  death  struggle  Veii  was 
captured  and  its  inhabitants  were  sold  into  slavery.  This 
victory  gave  Rome  undisputed  possession  of  the  Tiber 
valley.  This  valley,  as  we  noticed  (§  277),  really  controls 
the  western  slope  of  the  Apennines,  and  the  western  slope 
of  the  Apennines  is  really  Italy. 

296.  The  Sacking  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls.  —  Scarcely  The  Gauls 
had  Rome  downed  her  nearest  and  most  dangerous  rival,   s^^k  J^o^ne, 

^  and  destroy 

before  a  new  peril  arose.     Only  six  years  later  Rome  was  the  records. 
seized  and  sacked  by  nomadic  Gauls,  the  Romans  taking  ^^^f  ^^^° 

•^  '  .  weaken 

refuge  in  the  citadel.  The  Gauls  finally  agreed  to  ^\dth-  Etruria. 
draw  on  payment  of  a  thousand  pounds  of  gold,  but  were 
driven  off,  we  are  told,  before  the  money  was  paid.  The 
Gauls  finally  withdrew  to  the  valley  of  the  Po,  but  not 
before  they  had  destroyed  the  power  of  the  Etruscan 
cities.  Although  the  Gauls  had  sacked  Rome  and 
destroyed  all  of  the  old  records,  they  made  it  easy  for 
Rome  later  to  conquer  the  whole  of  Etruria. 

297.  The  Wars  with  the  Samnites.  —  By  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century  the  Romans  controlled  the  western 
coast  of  Italy  southward  almost  to  Naples.     This  brought 


230 


ROME 


The  Ro- 
mans are 
checked    by 
the  Sam- 
nites. 


Results  of 
victory 
over  all 
enemies. 


Rome  gains 
control  of 
all  "Italy." 


the  Romans  into  conflict  with  the  Samnites,  a  rude,  war- 
Uke  and  aggressive  hill  people  living  east  of  Naples.  Three 
protracted  wars  followed.  In  the  second  of  these,  in  a 
battle  at  the  Cau'dine  Forks  (321  B.C.)  the  Roman  army 
was  captured  and  deeply  humiliated  by  being  sent  under 
the  yoke,  a  great  disgrace.  The  yoke  was  made  by  placing 
two  spears  upright  in  the  ground  and  fastening  a  third 
across  between  them  at  such  a  height  that  the  vanquished 
soldiers  must  stoop  to  pass  under. 

In  the  last  war  with  the  Sam'nites,  all  of  Rome's  ene- 
mies, north,  east  and  south,  united  in  an  effort  to  check 
the  growing  power  of  the  city  on  the  Tiber.  In  295  Rome 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Etruscans  and  Gauls  in 
the  north  and  five  years  later  subdued  the  Samnites, 
making  them  dependent  allies  of  Rome.  Rome  was  now 
supreme  from  the  Rubicon  to  the  Greek  cities  of  the 
south. 

298.  The  Wars  with  Pyrrhus.  —  The  Greek  cities  ap- 
pealed to  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus  in  Greece.  Pyrrhus 
brought  to  Italy  an  army  and  a  large  number  of  ele- 
phants.^ It  was  the  elephants  rather  than  the  army 
that  threw  the  Roman  army  into  confusion,  so  that  Pyr- 
rhus won  two  victories.  But  they  did  him  no  good,  for 
the  Roman  army  refused  to  retreat,  and  the  Roman  sen- 
ate refused  to  treat  for  peace  so  long  as  Pyrrhus  was  on 
Roman  soil.  The  term  Pyrrhic  victory  has  ever  since 
been  used  to  denote  an  apparent  victory  which  is  little 
better  than  a  defeat.  In  the  end  Rome  completely  con- 
quered Pyrrhus  and  the  Greek  cities. 


1  Pyrrhus  hoped  to  unite  under  his  rule  all  of  the  Greek  cities  of  the 
West  and  conquer  Carthage.  In  short,  he  hoped  to  be  the  Alexander  the 
Great  of  the  West.  He  did  spend  several  years  in  Sicily  as  well  as  Italy, 
but  was  beaten  in  both  countries. 


THE   ROMAN  STATE   AND  ARMY 


231 


The  Roman  State  and  Army 


299.  Roman  Allies  and  Colonies.  —  Rome  now  con- 
trolled practically  all  of  Italy  south  of  the  Rubicon  river. 
We  must  not  think  of  Italy,  however,  as  a  single  state  under 
Roman  rule .  Only  one  third  of  it  was  really  Roman  territory, 
the  rest  being  occupied  by  Roman  allies,  or  colonies  estab- 
lished by  Romans,  or  subject  states  dependent  on  Rome. 

Frequently,  when  Rome  conquered  a  tribe,  such,  for 
instance,  as  the  Samnites,  she  allowed  them  the  right  to  look 
after  all  of  their  local  affairs.  They  were  treated  not  as 
subjects,  but  as  allies.  To  be  sure,  Rome  looked  after  all 
of  their  external  business.  Each  of  them  might  trade  with 
Rome,  but  they  might  not  trade  with  each  other.  This 
generous  treatment  was  naturally  given  to  those  cities 
that  voluntarily  placed  themselves  under  Roman  protec- 
tion, but  it  was  unusual  for  a  con- 
queror to  give  such  terms  to  a 
conquered  people.  We  shall  see 
however  that  it  paid. 

Besides  the  allied  cities,  there 
were  the  military  posts  called  col- 
onies. These  were  cities  founded 
by  groups  of  Roman  soldiers  for 
purposes  of  protecting  Roman  in- 
terests. There  were  more  than 
one  hundred  of  them  at  this  time 
scattered  all  over  Italy.  Their  in- 
habitants had  lost  their  full  Roman 
citizenship,  but  they  had  more 
civic  (citizenship)  rights  than  the 

II-       u    J  Roman  Soldier. 

allies  had. 

300.  The  Three  Classes  of  Citizens.  —  There  were 
three  classes  of  citizens  in  Italy.  First,  there  were  the 
Roman  citizens.     Some  of  these  lived  in  or  near  Rome,  and 


Division  of 

Italian 

territory. 


Generous 
treatment 
of  the 
Roman 
allies. 


The  Ro- 
man col- 
onies were 
military- 
posts. 


232 


ROME 


A  Triumph  —  Triumph 


Difference 
between 
Roman, 
Latin  and 
Italian 
citizen- 
ship. 


Service 
and  pay  of 
the  Roman 
soldier. 


were  enrolled  as  voters ;  the  others  were  Roman  citizens 
without  the  suffrage.  Then  there  were  those  that  had  the 
Latin  right.  Although  these  had  fewer  rights  than  a  Roman 
citizen,  the  right  of  intermarriage  with  Roman  citizens 
was  granted  to  them.  Most  of  the  colonists  were  Latin 
citizens.  Third,  there  were  those  with  the  Italian  right. 
These  had  the  right  to  own  property  and  do  business,  but 
did  not  have  as  full  rights  as  the  Latin  citizens. 

301.  The  Roman  Army.  —  The  Roman  army,  which  had 
defeated  the  phalanxes  of  Pyrrhus  and  was  to  meet  the 
trained  troops  of  Carthage,  was  one  of  the  finest  military 
bodies  the  world  has  ever  seen.  It  was  composed  of  citi- 
zen soldiers,  with  a  war-footing  of  300,000  for  Rome, 
and  about  as  many  more  from  the  allies.  Every  Roman 
man  from  17  to  45  was  subject  to  military  service  for  a 
term  of  20  years.     The  soldiers  drew  pay,  and  with  each 


THE   ROMAN   STATE   AND  ARMY 


233 


of  Caesar,  46  B.C. 

campaign  came  considerable  booty,  especially  in  the  later 
wars  against  rich  Carthage  and  the  wealthy  East. 

The  infantry  was  organized  in  le'gions  of  about  4500  Organiza- 
soldiers   each,   later   6000.     The   legion  fought   in  three   eq^'pment 
lines,  not  in  a  compact  mass  like  the  Macedonian  phalanx  and 
(§  198).     Each  soldier  was  trained  carefully  in  the  exer-  "^^^^^^^ 
cise  of  arms,  as  the  open  order  of  the  legion  demanded   soldiers, 
that  the  soldiers  should  have  skill  as  well  as  strength. 
A  Roman's  shield  was  like  that  of  the  Greek  soldier,  his 
spear  was  shorter  and  he  depended  more  on  the  short 
sword.     Those  soldiers  that  did  not  have  spears  hurled 
short  iron-pointed  javelins.     The  cavalry  was  made  up 
of  the  wealthier  young  men,  but  it  never  became  as  im- 
portant an  arm  of  the  service  as  the  Macedonian  horse- 
men of  Alexander  or  the  Numidian  cavalry  of  Hannibal 
(§  316,  note). 


234 


ROME 


Celebra- 
tion of  a 
great 
victory. 


Geography 
of  Italy 
and  Rome. 


Roman 
character, 
religion 
and  early 
history. 


The 

struggle 
between  the 
patricians 
and  the 
plebs. 


302.  A  Triumph.  —  The  greatest  honor  that  could 
be  conferred  on  a  Roman  general  was  the  right  to  celebrate 
a  triumph.  A  huge  procession  moved  through  gaily 
decorated  streets  of  Rome  to  the  temple  of  Jupiter  on 
Capitoline  hill.  Near  the  head  of  the  procession  were  the 
consuls,  preceded  as  usual  by  the  lictors,  with  other  mag- 
istrates and  the  senators.  Then  came  the  booty,  in  the 
later  days  making  a  procession  several  miles  in  length. 
After  the  booty  marched  the  captives,  with  occasionally^ 
a  king  to  give  added  honor  to  his  conqueror.  In  the  rear 
came  the  army,  led  by  the  fortunate  commander,  in  a 
triumphal  chariot.  The  people  and  the  soldiers  shouted 
''  triumphe."  The  triumph  ended  with  a  feast.  In  later 
times  the  emperors  erected  triumphal  arches  to  com- 
memorate some  victory. 

303.  Summary.  —  Rome  occupied  the  central  part  of 
the  central  peninsula  extending  from  Europe  mto  the  Medi- 
terranean. It  was  at  a  commercial  cross-roads,  defended 
by  hills  and  swamps,  and  it  controlled  the  most  important 
valley  of  the  western  slope  of  the  Apennines.  In  the  valley 
of  the  Po  were  the  Gauls,  north  of  Rome  was  Etruria,  east, 
the  Sabines,  south,  Latium,  and  farther  south,  Campania 
and  Samnium. 

The  old  Romans  were  simple  sturdy  peasants,  severe, 
unimaginative  and  courageous.  The  father  ruled  his 
family  sternly,  although  the  Roman  matron  had  a  position 
of  dignit}'.  The  early  Romans  worshipped  objects  of 
nature,  they  emphasized  form  in  religion  and  in  law.  They 
learned  of  their  neighbors  the  Etruscans  to  worship  gods 
that  were  powers  rather  than  objects,  to  build  walls,  drains 
and  buildings  and  to  organize  governments. 

In  510  B.C.  the  last  of  the  seven  kings,  an  Etruscan 
prince,  was  driven  out  and  a  patrician  republic  was  estab- 
lished. The  patricians  governed  through  consuls,  senate 
and  comitia.     The  plebs  rebelled  and  gained,  first,  tribunes 


state  and 
army. 


THE    ROMAN   STATE    AND   ARMY  235 

and  an  assembly ;  second,  a  written  law ;  third,  social  and 
political  rights,  and  last,  the  right  to  hold  any  office  and 
(287  B.C.)  to  an  equal  share  in  making  the  laws. 

Rome  gained  control  of  the  Tiber  valley  by  destroying  Conquest 
Veil.  The  overthrow  of  Etruria  was  aided  by  the  invasion  °^  '^^^^y- 
of  the  Gauls.  When  the  Latin  confederation  turned 
against  Rome,  she  crushed  it,  but  gave  good  terms  to  the 
people.  Then  Rome  finally  conquered  the  Samnites  and 
gained  control  of  all  Ital}^  by  defeating  Pyrrhus  and  the 
Greek  cities. 

Some  of  the  people  of  Italy  were  Roman  citizens.  Roman 
Others,  including  some  colonists,  had  the  Latin  right,  and 
the  allies  and  some  others  had  the  Italian  right.  The  army 
was  organized  by  legions  and  comprised  more  than  600,000 
Romans  and  allies.  It  was  organized  in  legions.  After 
a  victory  a  triumph  was  celebrated. 

General  References 

Morey,  Outlines  of  Roman  History,  9-99. 
Botsford,  Source  Book  of  Ancient  History,  313-378. 
Munro,  Source  Book  of  Roman  History,  1-77, 
Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient  History,  II,  1-52. 
Seignobos,  History  of  the  Roman  People,  1-85. 
Pelham,  Outlines  of  Roman  History,  3-107. 
How  and  Leigh,  History  of  Rome,  1-130. 
Ihne,  Early  Rome. 

Abbott,  Roman  Political  Institutions,  1-77. 
Heitland,  The  Roman  Republic,  I,  1-185. 

Topics 

Government  of  the  Early  Republic  :  Seignobos,  History 
of  the  Roman  People,  27-35 ;  Pelham,  Outlines  of  Roman  History, 
49-54 ;  How  and  Leigh,  History  of  Rome,  47-51 ;  Heitland, 
The  Roman  Republic,  I,  60-69  ;  Botsford,  Source  Book,  338-342 ; 
Munro,  Source  Book  of  Roman  History,  6-22. 

Early  Roman  Religion  :  Seignobos,  History  of  the  Roman 
People,  36-44 ;    Mommsen,  History  of  Rome,  Book  I,  ch.  XII ; 


236  ROME 

Carter,  Religious  Life  of  Ancient  Rome,  9-16,  24—27;  Sandys 
(ed.).    Companion   to   Latin  Studies,    149-159. 

The  Licixiam  Laws  (367  b.c.)  :  Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient 
History,  II,  23-27;  How  and  Leigh,  History  of  Rome,  91-94; 
Heitland,  The  Roman  Republic,  I,  96-100. 

The  Roman  Army  :  Seignobos,  Roman  People,  74-85 ; 
Munro,  Source  Book  of  Roman  History,  23-40;  How  and  Leigh, 
History  of  Rome,  134-141. 

Studies 

1.  The  place  of  Rome  in  history.  Morey,  Outlines  of  Roman 
History,  9-11. 

2.  Roman  names.  Johnston,  Private  Life  of  the  Romans,  35- 
42. 

3.  The  Etruscans.  Carter,  Religious  Life  of  Ancient  Rome, 
16-24. 

4.  Romulus.  Guerber,  Story  of  the  Romans,  22-33  ;  Botsford, 
Source  Book  of  Ancient  History,  334-338. 

5.  Stories  of  old  Romans.  Guerber,  Story  of  the  Romans, 
66-69,  76-78. 

6.  The  first  secession  of  the  plebs.  Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient 
History,  II,  19-23. 

7.  Cincinnatus.     Davis,  Readings,  II,  27-29. 

8.  The  laws  of  the  twelve  tables.  Botsford,  Source  Book, 
351-353. 

9.  The  struggle  between  the  patricians  and  plebs.  Morey, 
Outlines  of  Roman   History,   53-72. 

10.  Sack  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls.  Botsford,  Source  Book  of 
Ancient  History,  362-365. 

11.  Humiliation  of  the  Romans  at  Caudine  Forks.  Munro, 
Source  Book  of  Roman  History,  74-77. 

12.  Pyrrhus.     Botsford,  Source  Book,  365-369. 

13.  Roman  municipia  and  colonies.  Botsford,  Source  Book, 
371-374. 

Questions 

1.  Show  how  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines  divide  Italy  into 
three  great  areas,  the  Po  valley,  the  western  slope,  and  "Magna 
Grsecia." 

2.  Give  the  names  and  locations  of  the  most  important  peoples 
of  Italy. 


THE   ROMAN  STATE   AND  ARMY  237 

3.  Why  was  Rome  favorably  situated  for  the  task  of  control- 
ling the  Tiber  valley  ?  Italy  ?  the  Mediterranean  world  ? 
In  relation  to  the  Mediterranean  basin,  compare  Rome  with 
Corinth ;  with  Syracuse ;  with  Carthage.  Was  the  location  of 
Rome  more  favorable  for  world  dominion  than  that  of  any  of  the 
others  ? 

4.  What  were  the  characteristics  of  an  old  Roman  ?  What 
was  the  importance  of  the  family  in  ancient  Rome  ?  of  the 
father  in  the  family  ?  What  was  the  nature  and  importance  of 
the  old  Roman  religion? 

5.  What  did  Rome  owe  to  the  Etruscans  ?  What  did  she  owe 
to  the  Greeks  before  the  Punic  wars  ? 

6.  Describe  the  government  of  Rome  at  the  beginning  of  the 
republic.  Name  the  chief  steps  by  which  the  plebs  gained 
equality  with  the  patricians.  Why  did  the  senate  rather  than 
the  people  control  Rome  after  264  b.c.  ?  What  does  S.  P.  Q.  R. 
mean? 

7.  Show  the  importance  of  the  Latin  confederacy  to  Rome. 
Why  was  the  struggle  with  Veii  so  important  ?  How  did  the 
Gauls  help  Rome  more  than  they  injured  her  ? 

8.  Describe  the  steps  by  which  Rome  gained  control  of 
Italy.  What  were  the  next  natural  steps  in  expansion  ;  south  ? 
north  ? 

,  9.  What  was  an  ally  ?  a  colony  ?  a  Roman  citizen  ?  What 

were  Latin  rights  ?     Italian  rights  ?     Why  was  Rome's  policy 

toward  the  Italians  a  wise  one?     Why  was  the  legion  better 
than  the  phalanx  ? 


CHAPTER   X 


Steps  in 
the  ex- 
pansion 
of  Rome. 


Changes 
in  govern- 
ment, agri- 
culture and 
society. 


CONQUEST   OF   THE  MEDITERRANEAN    (264-146   b.c.) 
Before  and  after  the  Punic  Wars 

304.  Importance  of  Rome's  Conquests.  —  The  period 
before  the  Punic  wars  was  a  period  at  first  of  self-defence 
and  slow  development  for  the  Roman  republic,  followed 
by  a  period  of  expansion  throughout  Italy. ^  The  period 
following  264  B.C.  w^as  at  first  a  trial  of  strength  between 
Rome  and  her  great  rival,  Carthage.  By  200  B.C. 
Rome  was  the  undisputed  mistress  of  the  western  Mediter- 
ranean. Another  half  century  (200-146  B.C.)  sufficed 
for  the  humiliation  of  Macedonia  and  the  forced  with- 
drawal of  the  ambitious  Seleucids  (§  215)  from  Asia  Minor. 
By  146  B.C.  Rome  was  recognized  as  the  greatest  power  of 
the  eastern  Mediterranean,  as  well  as  the  only  power  in 
the  western,  for  Carthage  was  destroyed  in  146  B.C. 
After  146  b.c.  it  was  simply  a  question  of  time  before  the 
whole  eastern  Mediterranean  became  Roman  also,  al- 
though this  inevitable  expansion  continued  for  nearly 
three  centuries. 

305.  The  Change  in  the  Character  of  Rome.  —  The 
influence  of  these  victories  upon  the  government  and 
policies  of  Rome  was  necessarily  great,  for  no  popular 
assembly  could  rule  a  vast  republic  with  so  many  varied 
interests  and  foreign  complications.  The  senate  became 
the  real  ruling  body  of  Rome.  The  people  lost  their  old 
simplicity.     They  became  avaricious  and  wealthy.     East- 

^  Freeman  says,  "The  first  step  in  expansion,  in  short,  was  sudden 
and  swift ;  every  later  step  was  slow,  but  the  first  carried  every  other  step 
with  it  as  its  necessary  consequence."     Chief  Periods,  p.  40. 

238 


BEFORE   AND  AFTER  THE   PUNIC  WARS       239 

ern  luxury  and  customs  filled  society  with  corruption. 
The  old  peasant  farmer  was  forced  out  by  the  great  plan- 
tations managed  by  slaves  and  Rome  was  filled  with  a 
poverty-stricken  mob.  Before  taking  up  the  story  of 
these  conquests  and  their  results  we  must  notice  the 
international  situation  in  the  western  Mediterranean  be- 
fore the  Punic  wars  and  study  Carthage,  the  great  rival 
of  Rome. 

306.  Controlling    Peoples    of    the  Western    Mediterra-   Spheres  of 
nean  before  400  B.C. —  In  the  middle  of  the  sixth  cen-  'JJ^^hT^^ 
tury  before  Christ   three  peoples  shared   in   the   control   Etmcans, 
of  the  middle-western  Mediterranean  :  the  Etruscans,  the   ^nd^hr^^ 
Greeks  and  the  Carthaginians.     The  Etruscans  controlled   Cartha- 
most  of  Italy  from  the  valley  of  the  Po  to  the  plain  of   ^^^^^' 
Campania.     The  Greeks  occupied  the  south  of  Italy  and 

the  eastern  half  of  Sicily.  Greek  influence  was  dominant 
in  the  middle  Mediterranean.  The  Carthaginians  had 
brought  into  subjection  most  of  the  northern  part  of 
Africa,  and  they  controlled  practically  all  of  the  western 
Mediterranean  and  its  shores. 

The  Etruscans,  not  able  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  The  decline 
the    Samnites    in    Campania,    the    Romans    in    Latium,   Etruscans. 
and  the  Gauls  in  the  north,  decHned  rapidly.     This  left 
the  western  Mediterranean  to  the  Greeks  and  the  Car- 
thaginians, whose  contest  for  supremacy  took  place  in 
Sicily. 

307.  Conflict  for  Sicily.  —  As  we  noticed  (§  175),  at  the   Sicily  in 
time  of  the  Persian  wars,  Carthage  made  an  attack  upon  ^f^g^^^^e^^^ 
Sicily  the  same  year  that  Xerxes  invaded  Greece  (480  b.c).   Persian 
This  invasion  failed  with  the  defeat  of  the  Carthaginians  ^^^^• 

at  Himera.  After  the  defeat  of  Athens  by  Syracuse  in 
413  B.C.  (§  191)  the  Carthaginians  again  invaded  northern 
Sicily.  They  captured  Himera,  sacrificing  three  thousand 
Greeks  on  the  battlefield  where  the  Carthaginians  had 
been  defeated  in  480,  and  finally  gained  all  of  Sicily  except 


240 


ROAIE 


Sicily  in 
the  century 
before  the 
Punic 


wars. 


Syracuse.  Later  the  Carthaginians  were  defeated  by 
Di-o-nysH-us,^  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  who  extended  his 
sway  over  the  greater  part  of  Sicily  and  a  large  part  of 
"  Magna  Grsecia  "  as  well. 

After  Dionysius  came  Ti-mo'le-on,  the  liberator,  who 
soon  drove  back  the  Carthaginians,  deposed  the  tyrants 
and  formed  a  confederacy  of  the  Greek  cities.  He  was 
honored  as  the  noblest  of  the  western  Greeks.  A  genera- 
tion later  A-gath'o-des  carried  the  war  with  the  Cartha- 
ginians into  Africa.  Still  later  Pyrrhus  gained  temporary 
victories  in  Sicily  only  to  lose  control  of  all  of  the  island 
except  Syracuse  before  he  returned  to  Italy,  where  he  was 
defeated  by  the  Romans  (§  298). 


Importance 
of  the 
location  of 
Carthage. 


Carthage 

308.  Location  of  Carthage.  —  This  great  Phoenician 
city,  which  had  disputed  with  the  Greeks  for  three  cen- 
turies the  possession  of  the  fair  island  of  Sicily,  and  had 
gradually  become  the  only  power  in  the  western  Mediter- 
ranean, was  located  on  a  fine  harbor  at  the  outlet  of  one 
of  the  most  fertile  valleys  of  northern  Africa.  The 
resources  of  the  valley  and  of  the  continent  behind  Car- 
thage furnished  an  ample  food  supply  for  a  great  city. 
The  location  of  the  harbor  on  the  great  peninsula  which 
juts  into  the  Mediterranean,  only  seventy  miles  from 
Sicily,  was  even  more  central  and  commanding  than  that 
of  Rome.  Less  exposed  than  Sicily  to  attack,  it  was 
almost  as  close  to  the  crossing  of  the  commercial  highways 
from  east  to  west  and  from  north  to  south. 

309.  Dominions  and  Trade  of  Carthage.  —  The  Car- 
thaginians were  so  much  interested  in  trade  and  the  gain- 

1  Able,  shrewd,  but  unprincipled,  without  mercy  for  friend  or  con- 
sideration for  foe,  Dionysius  ruled  the  greatest  kingdom  that  any  Greek 
ever  established  in  the  West,  but  he  left  western  Greece  weaker  than  he 
found  it. 


CARTHAGE 


241 


ing  of  wealth  that  for  several  centuries  after  the  founding 
of  the  city  a  ground  rent  was  paid  for  the  land  on  which 
the  city  stood.  In  order  to  extend  this  commerce  the 
people  were  forced  to  drive  back  their  enemies.  Phoenician 
cities  in  Sicily  which  asked  for  protection  were  brought 
under  Carthaginian  rule ;  northern  Africa  was  subdued ; 
colonies  were  planted  in  Sardinia  and  Spain ;  and  at  one 
time  30,000  persons  were  sent  to  the  Atlantic  coast  beyond 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules  (Straits  of  Gibraltar)  to  establish 
trading  posts  and  colonies.  This  occurred  the  century  be- 
fore the  traditional  date  assigned  for  the  founding  of  Rome. 

Carthage  had  extensive  trade  with  Spain,  Britain, 
northern  and  western  Africa.^  This  trade  with  the  west- 
ern Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic  was  guarded  so 
jealously  that  all  intruders  were  hunted  down  and  drowned. 
The  western  Mediterranean  of  this  time  had  been  called 
'^  a  Phoenician  lake."  This  western  commerce  of  Car- 
thage was  less  extensive,  but  politically  more  important 
than  trade  with  the  interior  of  Africa  and  with  countries 
east  of  the  Mediterranean. ^  The  trade  of  Carthage  made 
her  the  wealthiest  city  of  that  time,  and  her  governmental 
revenues  were  very  great. 

310.  The  Government  of  Carthage.  —  Carthage  was 
governed  by  a  commercial  aristocracy.  The  control  of 
affairs  was  always  held  by  a  few  powerful  families  which 


Conquests 
and  trade 
were  ex- 
tended 
together. 


Cartha- 
ginian 
supremacy 
in  the 
western 
Mediter- 
ranean. 


1  She  founded  trading  posts  or  factories  for  the  extension  of  the  Car- 
thaginian trade.  Gold  and  slaves,  to  be  obtained  from  the  region  of  the 
Niger,  drew  her  to  the  African  coast  beyond  Gibraltar.  The  tin  of  Brit- 
ain and  the  amber  of  the  Baltic  attracted  her  ships  to  the  north  Atlantic. 
Spain,  rich  in  silver  mines,  required  settlements  along  both  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Mediterranean  to  develop  trade  and  to  protect  those  engaged 
in  the  mining  of  silver.  Iron  brought  the  Carthaginians  to  the  little 
island  of  Elba, while  agricultural  products  formed  a  large  part  of  the  trade 
with  the  Balearic  islands,  with  Corsica,  Sardinia  and  Sicily. 

^  There  were  two  commercial  treaties  between  Carthage  and  Rome 
before  340  b.c.  In  the  second  of  these  Rome  was  not  allowed  to  trade 
with  Cor'si-ca,  Sar-din'ia,  the  coast  of  Africa  or  other  places  more  distant. 
R 


242 


ROME 


Aristo- 
cratic 

government 
and  harsh 
rule  of 
dependen- 
cies. 


The  large 
navy  and 
mercenary' 
army  of 
Carthage. 


The  great 
wealth  and 
dominion 
of  Carthage 
compared 
with  the 
poverty  of 
the  small 
Roman 
republic. 


succeeded  in  protecting  Carthaginian  interests  abroad 
at  the  same  time  that  they  maintained  order  and  prevented 
insurrections  at  home.^  In  her  treatment  of  her  depen- 
dencies Carthage  was  both  harsh  and  avaricious ;  harsh, 
because  by  levelHng  the  walls  of  their  cities,  she  left  them 
helpless  ;  and  avaricious,  ])ecause  of  the  heavy  tribute  that 
she  demanded  from  them.  The  Carthaginian  dependen- 
cies were  bound  to  her  only  by  ties  of  fear.  In  time  of 
public  danger  they  almost  always  were  glad  to  revolt. 

311.  The  Army  and  Navy  of  Carthage.  —  To  protect 
her  commerce  from  the  pirates  that  infested  every  sea, 
Carthage  maintained  the  largest  navy  of  that  day;  to 
maintain  her  authority  over  her  vast  dominion,  she  had 
an  army  composed  of  Carthaginians  and  mercenaries.^ 
The  mercenaries  were  frequently  treated,  not  as  sol- 
diers, but  as  subjects.  They  were  bullied  and  abused 
when  danger  was  not  present,  or  abandoned  sometimes 
in  the  face  of  the  enemy  ;  hence,  the  term  "  Pun'ic  faith," 
that  is,  Phoenician  faithlessness.  It  is  not  strange  then 
that,  when  reverses  came  to  Carthage,  her  armies  revolted, 
seeking  freedom  for  their  people  and  revenge  on  their 
despotic  rulers. 

312.  Comparison  of  Rome  and  Carthage.  —  It  was 
between  this  great  city,  ruler  of  the  western  Mediterranean, 
and  Rome,  mistress  of  Italy,  that  a  struggle  now  began 
(264  B.C.)  which  must  lead  to  the  destruction  of  one  or 

1  Aristotle  comments  on  the  remarkable  freedom  from  insurrection 
that  was  enjoyed  by  Carthage  for  several  centuries.  The  ruling  classes, 
however,  gave  no  real  share  in  the  government  to  the  people,  for  as- 
semblies of  the  citizens,  like  those  of  Sparta,  could  only  accept  or  reject 
proposals  made  to  them. 

2  Comparatively  few  Carthaginians  entered  the  army,  because  there 
was  more  money  to  be  made  in  trade,  but  there  was  usually  a  sacred 
band  of  2500  as  body  guard  for  the  general,  and  a  citizen  army  of  25,000 
might  be  raised  with  ease.  Greater  dependence  was  placed  on  the  hired 
troops,  the  swift  and  skilful  Numidian  cavalry,  fierce  warriors  from  Spain 
and  levies  gathered  from  a  hundred  dependent  cities. 


CARTHAGE 


243 


the  other.  Carthage  was  still  at  the  height  of  her  power, 
with  broad  dominions,  limitless  resources  of  wealth,  abso- 
lute control  of  the  sea  and  freedom  from  internal  dissen- 
tions.  On  the  other  hand,  Rome,  poor,  ^\dthout  a  navy, 
possessed  of  but  a  few  thousand  square  miles  of  territory, 
though  she  was  the  real  head  of  Italy,  still  remained  a 
commonwealth  of  peasants,  rude  and  unimaginative,  but 
brave  and  sturdy. 

Rome  excelled  Carthage  not  only  because  she  depended 
on  herself  rather  than  on  her  wealth,  but  because  she  had 
treated  her  dependents  as  human  beings  rather  than  as 
sources  of  revenue.  A  great  many  cities  and  tribes  which 
Rome  had  conquered  were  treated  as  allies,  most  of  the 
others  still  possessed  many  rights  and  looked  forward  to 
the  time  when  Rome  would  give  them  also  the  privileges 
of  allies  or  of  Italian  citizens  (§  300).  Even  the  terrible 
dangers  of  Hannibal's  invasion  in  the  second  Punic  war 
did  not  shake  the  loyalty  of  many  of  these  subject  Italians. 
Even  more,  Rome  owed  her  final  success  to  her  citizen- 
soldiers  and  to  the  determination  with  which  she  replaced 
every  army  that  was  destroyed.  How  could  a  nation  of 
traders  conquer  such  a  people  ! 


Rome 
owed  her 
success  to 
the  char- 
acter of 
her  people, 
to  her 
citizen- 
army  and 
her  faithful 
dependents. 


The  Early  Punic  Wars 

313.  Beginning  of  the  First  Punic  War.  —  The  wars 
between  Rome  and  Carthage  naturally  began  with  a 
struggle  for  Sicily.  The  Romans  were  asked  to  help 
some  of  their  allies  who  had  attacked  Messena  and  were 
shut  in  there  by  Carthaginians.  Rome  sent  help  be- 
cause she  realized  that  war  with  Carthage  was  inevitable. 
Rome  soon  learned  that  nothing  could  be  done  so  long  as  Car- 
thage was  supreme  on  the  sea.^     Fortunately  a  Carthaginian 

^  The  Romans  had  only  the  triremes  of  some  allies,  whereas  the  Car- 
thaginians had  hundreds  of  quinqueremes.  To  fight  a  quinquereme  with 
a  trireme,  such  as  the  Greeks  and  the  Persians  had  used  at  Salamis,  was 
like  fighting  a  battleship  with  a  cruiser. 


The  war 
in  Sicily 
shows  Rome 
the  need 
of  a  fleet. 


244 


ROME 


Rome's 
fleets  de- 
cided the 
first  and 
the  second 
Punic 
wars. 


Rome  gains 
Sardinia 
and  Cor- 
sica, and 
creates 
her  first 
provinces. 


galley  ran  aground  and  was  captured  by  the  Romans. 
With  this  as  a  model  a  fleet  was  constructed,  the  rowers 
being  trained  meanwhile  to  row  on  land.  With  the  same 
indomitable  pluck  these  Roman  landsmen  sallied  forth 
to  meet  the  great  fleet  of  the  mistress  of  the  western  seas. 
Their  galleys  carried  picked  soldiers  who  rushed  across 
bridges  thrown  from  Roman  vessels  to  those  of  the  enemy, 
turning  a  sea  fight  into  a  semblance  of  a  land  battle,  in 
which  the  Romans  excelled. 

314.  Rome's  Naval  Victories.  —  Four  years  after  the 
war  started  a  great  naval  battle  occurred  at  My'lce  off  the 
north  coast  of  Sicily.  The  Carthaginians  were  badly 
defeated.  Because  her  men  could  not  learn  the  art  of 
navigation  in  one  generation,  Rome  afterward  lost  several 
large  fleets  by  shipwreck,  but,  with  great  persistence, 
each  fleet  was  replaced  by  another.  As  the  Punic  wars 
were  decided  hy  Rome's  control  of  the  sea,  Rome  was  well 
rewarded  for  her  perseverance.  After  more  than  twenty 
years  of  fighting,  Carthage  agreed  to  give  up  Sicily  and 
pay  Rome  a  large  sum  of  money.  The  Greek  historian, 
Polybius,  considered  this  a  greater  war  than  that  of  the 
Greeks  with  the  Persians,  and  a  greater  war  than  the 
Peloponnesian  war  of  Greece. 

315.  From  the  First  to  the  Second  Punic  Wars.  — 
Both  Rome  and  Carthage  realized  that  this  first  war  was 
a  preliminary  struggle.  The  question  at  issue  was  not 
the  control  of  Sicily.  It  was  a  question  whether  Rome  or 
Carthage  should  control  the  western  Mediterranean.  At  the 
close  of  the  first  Punic  war,  Carthage,  however,  had  her 
hands  full  suppressing  a  revolt  of  her  mercenary'  troops. 
Rome  took  advantage  of  this  insurrection  to  occupy  Sar- 
dinia and  Corsica.  Sicily  she  made  into  one  province, 
the  other  islands  into  another.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  Rome's  great  provincial  system  (§  330). 

Taking  advantage  of  the  peace  with  Carthage,  Rome 


THE   EARLY   PUNIC  WARS 


245 


tried  to  suppress  the  Gauls  in  the  Po  valley  and  the  pirates 
on  the  Adriatic.  This  was  not  done  very  effectively, 
since  Rome  was  able  to  give  but  a  small  part  of  her  atten- 
tion to  these  barbarous  peoples.  They  naturally  took  the 
first  opportunity  to  rise  against  her. 

316.  Hannibal  Invades  Italy.  —  In  Spain  Hamilcar 
Barca  ^  and  his  sons  raised  a  fine  army.  In  time  Hanni- 
bal, eldest  of  the  '^  lion's  brood,"  became  sole  commander 
of  these  troops.  He  at  once  prepared  to  invade  Italy. 
To  do  this  Hannibal  was  forced  to  cross  the  high  Alps. 
As  the  narrow  trails  were  covered  with  ice  thousands  of 
his  men  lost  their  footing  and  fell  over  the  cliffs.  Several 
times  Hannibal  was  forced  to  stop  and  cut  a  new  and 
broader  path  across  a  pass.  After  several  weeks  of  ter- 
rible suffering  and  hardship,  weeks  filled  with  constant 
attacks  by  the  native  tribes,  Hannibal  brought  the  rem- 
nant of  his  fine  army  into  the  valley  of  the  Po.  Here  he 
was  welcomed  by  the  Gauls.  Within  a  year  two  Roman 
armies  were  trapped  and  practically  destroyed  by  Hannibal. 

317.  Cannae.  —  In  this  time  of  great  danger  Fa'bi-us 
Max'i-mus  was  appointed  dictator.  Fabius  followed 
a  policy  of  avoiding  pitched  battles  that  has  ever  since 
been  known  as  the  Fabian  policy."^     Later  the  command 


Conquest 
of  Cisal- 
pine Gaul. 


Hannibal 
crosses  the 
Alps  (218 
B.C.)  and 
annihilates 
two  Roman 


Hannibal 
destroys 
Rome's  fine 
army  at 
Cannae. 


1  The  most  successful  Carthaginian  general,  Hamilcar  Barca,  spent 
the  interval  after  the  first  Punic  war  in  conquering  Spain,  which  he  made 
into  a  Carthaginian  province.  In  Spain  he  trained  a  very  fine  army  of 
Nu-mid'i-an  horsemen  and  Spanish  infantry,  for  he  attached  the  loyal 
Spanish  people  very  closely  to  his  own  interests.  He  prepared  his  sons 
for  a  military  life  in  order  that  they  might  avenge  Carthage  on  Rome. 
The  story  is  told  that  he  took  his  little  son  Hannibal,  a  boy  of  nine  years, 
and  made  him  swear,  on  the  altar  of  his  gods,  eternal  hatred  to  the 
Romans. 

2  Fabius  hung  upon  the  army  of  Hannibal,  occupying  the  best  positions 
as  Hannibal  moved  down  through  Italy,  but  refusing  to  be  drawn  into  a 
battle.  Hannibal  did  not  dare  attack,  as  Fabius'  positions  were  too 
strong.  After  a  time  however  the  Romans  became  impatient  and  crit- 
icised the  Fabian  policy,  calling  the  dictator  Fabius  Cunctator  ("De- 
layer") in  derision. 


246 


ROME 


Hannibal 
fails  to  win 
over  most 
of  Rome's 
allies. 


Hannibal 
is  deprived 
of  his  last 
chance  for 
help. 


was  turned  over  to  the  two  consuls.  Hannibal  now 
watched  his  chance.  At  Can'nos,  in  eastern  Italy,  Hanni- 
bal, attacking  from  several  directions,  threw  into  incredible 
confusion  an  army  nearly  twice  as  large  as  his  own. 
The  Roman  army  lost  all  order,  only  those  on  the  outside 
of  this  seething  mass  being  able  to  fight.  The  dead  were 
said  to  have  numbered  more  than  50,000.  Not  a  family 
in  Rome  escaped  bereavement.  The  senate  lost  eighty 
members.  Cannae  was  a  terrible  blow  to  the  young  re- 
public. 

318.  Hannibal  Tries  to  win  over  the  Italians. — Any 
other  people,  in  such  a  crisis,  would  have  been  glad  to 
accept  terms  of  peace,  but  not  so  the  Romans.  A  new 
army  was  raised  at  once  and  put  in  the  field,  though  it 
did  not  dare  to  face  Hannibal.  Hannibal  meanwhile  was 
doing  everything  in  his  power  to  shake  the  allegiance  of 
the  Roman  allies.  He  had  freed  at  once  all  of  the  allies 
taken  prisoner  at  Cannae  and  in  previous  battles.  He 
offered  one  and  all  the  most  favorable  terms  of  trade  and 
self-government,  if  they  would  desert  the  Roman  cause. 
Wherever  he  went  some  cities  naturally  accepted  his  terms 
and  offered  no  opposition, ^  but  others  stood  steadfast  in 
their  friendship  for  Rome.  Rome  was  surely  getting  a 
reward  for  her  wise  policy  toward  her  allies.  Once  Han- 
nibal marched  rapidly  almost  to  the  gates  of  Rome,  but 
he  did  not  dare  stop  and  lay  siege  to  the  city. 

319.  Metaurus.  —  With  only  the  Gauls  and  a  few  cities 
to  support  him,  Hannibal  kept  his  army  in  Italy,  unde- 
feated and  undiscouraged,  but  gradually  dwindling.  It 
was  only  a  question  of  time  before  he  would  be  forced  out 
of  Italy  unless  help  came.  As  Rome  controlled  the  sea, 
help  must  come  by  land.     In  207  this  seemed  at  hand. 


1  Among  the  cities  that  deserted  Rome  were  Capua  and  Syracuse. 
The  siege  of  these  cities  formed  two  very  interesting  and  important  events 
in  the  second  Punic  war.     See  Seignobos,  Roman  People,  111-112. 


THE   EARLY  PUNIC  WARS 


247 


for  Hannibars  brother  Has'dru-bal  crossed  the  Alps  with 
an  army  from  Spain.  At  the  river  Me-tau'rus  two 
Roman  armies  met  and  destroyed  the  army  of  Hasdrubal. 
It  is  said  that  Hannibal  first  learned  of  this  great  disaster 
when  the  head  of  his  brother  was  brought  to  his  camp. 
He  understood  then  that  he  had  failed. 

320.  The  Close  of  the  Second  Punic  War.  —  Not  dar- 
ing to  attack  Hannibal  the  Romans  decided  to  send  an 
army  into  Africa.  Pub'li-us  Cor-neri-us  Scip'i-o,  after- 
ward called  Scipio  Africanus,  the  elder,  had  command 
of  this  army.  Hannibal  was  immediately  recalled  from 
Italy.  The  two  armies  met  at  Za'ma  (202  b.c)  near  Car- 
thage. Here  Hannibal  met  his  first  real  defeat,  but  it 
was  decisive. 

Carthage  now  sued  for  peace.  The  terms  of  the  Romans 
were  accepted  without  much  modification.  Carthage 
lost  Spain  and  all  islands  in  the  Mediterranean.  She 
gave  up  all  her  naval  vessels  but  ten.  She  paid  a  huge 
indemnity  and  continued  to  pay  a  yearly  sum  for  fifty 
years.  She  could  not  make  war  on  a  Roman  ally  and  her 
foreign  relations  were  subject  to  Rome.  Some  of  her 
dependencies  in  northern  Africa  became  allies  of  Rome. 
All  that  was  left  to  Carthage  was  her  own  territory  and 
her  trade.  Carthage  no  longer  rivalled  Rome  as  a  Medi- 
terranean power,  for  her  commanding  position  had  been 
destroyed. 


Hannibal 
is  defeated 
at  Zama 
in  Africa. 


Carthage 
loses  most 
of  her 
territory 
and  pays  a 
large  in- 
demnity. 


Completion  of  Mediterranean  Conquests 


321.   Conquest   of    Macedonia.  —  The    king   of   Mace-  Macedonia 

donia  had  tried  to  help  Hannibal  because  he  feared  that  ^?^^f  ^2. 

^  check  Kome 

the  Romans  would  expand  eastward  toward  the  ^Egean  and  is 

Sea.     After  Hannibal's  defeat  the  Romans  began  war  in  overthrown, 
earnest,  as  Macedonia  Was  interfering  with  Greek  allies 
of  Rome.     In  two  great  battles  the  Roman  legion  met  the 


248 


ROME 


Rome  be- 
comes the 
dominant 
power  in 
the  eastern 
Mediter- 
ranean. 


Change  in 

Rome's 

policy 

toward 

Greece. 


Macedonian  phalanx.  Each  time  the  victory  was  won  by 
the  more  active  Roman  troops,  as  the  battles  were  fought 
on  rough  ground.  The  second  battle,  at  Pyd'na  (168  B.C.), 
decided  the  fate  of  Macedonia.  Her  treasure  was  taken 
to  Rome,  150,000  inhabitants  of  E-pi'rus  were  sold  into 
slavery,  and  Macedonia  became,  first  a  dependency,  and 
afterward  a  province  of  Rome. 

322.  The  War  against  Antiochus  of  Syria.  —  A  rival 
greater  than  the  king  of  Macedonia  was  the  ambitious 
An-ti'o-chus  of  Syria,  who  had  conquered  the  peoples  of 
Asia  ]\Iinor  and  had  invaded  Greece.  The  Romans 
marched  to  the  help  of  their  allies  in  the  East  and  de- 
feated Antiochus  at  Mag-ne'si-a  (190  B.C.).  Al- 
though they  kept  no  territory  in  Asia,  from  this  time 
Ro7ne  was  recognized  as  the  greatest  power  in  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  as  well  as  in  the  West.  One  storj^  illus- 
trates this.  A  successor  of  Antiochus  wished  to  con- 
quer Egypt.  The  Roman  senate  sent  a  legate  to  Syria 
telling  him  not  to  do  it.  The  Syrian  king  agreed  to  con- 
sider the  matter.  Immediately  the  Roman  legate  drew 
a  circle  in  the  sand  about  the  king,  telling  him  that  he 
should  not  pass  outside  the  circle  until  he  had  agreed 
not  to  make  war  on  Egypt.  The  Syrian  king  yielded 
at  once,  for  he  did  not  wish  a  war  with  Rome.  After  the 
conquest  of  Macedonia  and  Syria  ''  the  whole  civilized 
world  thenceforth  recognized  the  Roman  senate  as  the 
supreme  tribunal,  whose  commissioners  decided  in  the 
last  resort  between  kings  and  nations." 

323.  The  Conquest  of  Greece.  —  Rome  had  always 
looked  up  to  Greece  as  a  country  of  culture  and  a  high 
civilization.  Ordinarily  she  interfered  in  Greek  affairs 
only  at  the  request  of  some  Greek  ally.  After  the  second 
Punic  war  the  Romans  began  to  devise  the  overthrow  of 
the  most  enterprising  Greek  cities  because  they  had  trade 
which  the  rich  Roman  merchants  and  bankers  wanted. 


COMPLETION   OF  CONQUESTS 


249 


Rhodes  was  the  first  of  these  great  cities  to  be  punished, 
because  she  was  prosperous. 

Later  Rome  found  abundant  excuse  to  interfere  in  the 
affairs  of  Greece  proper,  for  the  Greeks  quarrelled  con- 
tinually after  the  overthrow  of  Macedonia  at  Pydna. 
In  the  end  Greece  was  subdued  in  146  b.c.  One  of  its  most 
powerful  cities,  Corinth,  was  plundered,  its  inhabitants  were 
sold  into  slavery,  its  buildings  were  destroyed  and  its  site 
was  cursed  by  the  Romans. 

324.  The  Destruction  of  Carthage.  —  The  prosperity 
of  Carthage  likewise  aroused  envy  among  the  avaricious 
Romans.  For  a  long  time  the  most  severe  of  the  Romans, 
Cato  the  Censor,  had  ended  every  speech  with  the  words, 
"  Carthage  must  be  destroyed."  An  excuse  for  war  came 
when  Carthage  made  war  on  her  neighbor  Numidia,  an 
ally  of  Rome  that  had 
repeatedly  injured  Car- 
thage. 

At  first  the  Romans 
were  successful ;  Car- 
thage was  compelled  to 
give  up  some  of  her  best 
citizens  as  hostages  and 
surrender  her  naval 
vessels  and  her  arms. 
The  Romans  then  de- 
manded that  Carthage 
be  abandoned,  as  they 
feared  so  powerful  a 
commercial  rival.  The 
patient  Carthaginians 
rebelled.  With  mar- 
vellous     energy      they 

began  to  rebuild  walls  and  to  fashion  Aveapons  out  of 
scraps  of  metal.     The  women  gave  their  hair  for  the  cords 


Roman  Artillery. 


Anarchy 
in  Greece 
leads  to 
conquest 
by  Rome. 


Rome 
sought  an 
excuse  to 
destroy 
her  great 
rival. 


The  des- 
perate 
courage  of 
the  Car- 
thaginians 
does  not 
save  their 
city. 


250 


ROME 


Provinces 
added  by 
Sulla,   Pom- 
pey  and 
Csesar. 


Augustus 
places  the 
material 
boundaries 
at  the  Dan- 
ube and  the 
Euphrates. 


on  the  huge  bows.  For  several  years  the  Carthaginians 
resisted  the  Roman  attacks  until  in  146  b.c,  starving  and 
overwhelmed,  they  were  forced  to  surrender.  Of  the 
700,000  that  began  the  siege  but  50,000  survived.  Like 
Corinth,  and  in  the  same  year,  Carthage  was  destroyed 
because  of  the  commercial  rivalry  of  Rome.^ 

325.  Roman  Expansion  after  146  B.C.  —  Under  the 
Roman  repubhc,  which  lasted  until  27  b.c,  Rome  added 
Gaul,  most  of  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  and  parts  of 
Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  Most  of  this  territory  was  con- 
quered by  the  great  generals  of  the  late  Republic,  Sul'la 
(§  342),  Pom'pey  (§  344)  and  Cse'sar  (§  347). 

When  Aug-us'tus  established  the  empire  (§  354),  he 
not  only  completed  the  circle  of  Roman  possessions  around 
the  Mediterranean,  but  he  wisely  limited  the  empire  to 
the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  rivers  in  central  Europe 
and  to  the  Euphrates  River  in  Asia.  Later  emperors 
held  to  those  boundaries,  with  one  exception.^ 


Social,  po- 
litical and 
economic 
changes 
create  a 
new  Rome. 


Changes  in  Rome 

326.  General  Changes.  —  During  the  later  foreign  wars 
a  new  Rome  was  created,  due,  in  large  part,  to  the  wars 
themselves.  Some  of  these  changes  were  (I)  Social 
changes,  due  chiefly  to  the  new  wealth  and  luxury,  and 
shown  in  corruption,  in  religion,  in  family  life  and  the  new 
amusements ;     (XL)    Political  changes  which   affected   the 

1  Carthage,  Corinth  and  Tyre  were  afterward  rebuilt,  because  they 
were  natural  commercial  centres.  The  Romans  found  that  they  had 
injured  rather  than  helped  themselves  by  destroying  these  ports  through 
which  much  of  their  trade  must  be  carried  on. 

2  The  emperor  Tra'jan  (98-117  a.d.)  was  a  great  conqueror  and  added 
to  the  Roman  empire  lands  beyond  the  Danube  River  and  the  Euphrates 
River,  but  his  successors  did  not  try  to  defend  the.se  frontiers  against  their 
enemies.  To  be  sure  Britain,  which  had  been  concjuered  before  the  time 
of  Trajan,  was  held  for  four  centuries  until  invasions  of  German  tribes 
caused  the  "break-up"  of  the  Roman  empire  (ch.  XIV). 


CHANGES   IN   ROME 


251 


international  position  and  relations  of  Rome,  and  the 
government  of  the  provinces  as  well  as  of  Rome  herself ; 
and  (III)  Economic  changes,  such  as  the  development  of 
a  capitalist  class,  the  spread  of  slavery  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  old  time  peasantry,  which  had  been  the  chief 
strength  of  old  Rome. 

327.  Influence  of  Wealth  in  Rome.  —  The  Roman  public   Influence 
treasury  was  filled  by  the  great  wealth  that  came  to  Rome  °^  society, 

•^     _  .  .  the  army 

from  the  indemnity  levied  upon  Carthage  at  the  end  of  the  and  govern- 
second  Punic  war,  upon  Macedonia  a  little  later,  from  trib-  "^®^^- 
ute    paid    by  subject   peoples,    and   from   gifts   and  be- 
quests like  that  of  the   king  of  Pergamum  (133   b.c.).^ 
From  a   state   almost   of  poverty  the   Romans   became 
suddenly  wealthy.     Opportunities  to  make  money  were 
offered  that  soon  created  a  capitalist  class  (§  331).     The 
old    styles    no  longer  satisfied ;    new  luxuries    were    im- 
ported yearly  from  the  East.     The  elder  Cato,  last  of  the 
old  Romans,  protested  in  vain  against  the  new  luxury 
the   dissipations   that   wealth   brought    and  the  growing 
corruption  in  government  and  society.     Soldiers  no  longer 
enlisted  for  purely  patriotic  reasons,  since  service  in  the 
eastern  wars  meant  rich  booty  for  privates  as  well  as  for 
generals  and  the  state. 

328.  Social  Changes.  —  Contact  with  the  East  brought  imitation 
many  of  the  refinements  of  the  Hellenistic  civilization.   °^  Greek 

.  models. 

Greek  dress  and  Greek  foods  were  copied.  Houses  were 
built  and  furnished  after  Greek  models.  Greek  slaves 
taught  the  sons  of  rich  Romans.  Greek  plays  furnished 
models  for  Roman  dramatists  and  Greek  works  of  art 
were  brought  from  the  plundered  cities  of  Greece.     The 

^  Rome  had  undertaken  the  war  against  Antiochus  the  Great  at  the 
request  of  the  king  of  Pergamum.  At  the  close  of  the  war  Pergamum 
received  great  additions  of  territory,  as  the  Romans  were  not  ready  to 
govern  lands  so  far  distaYit  as  Asia  Minor.  In  133,  when  the  last  king 
of  Pergamum  died,  his  territories  and  his  treasure  were  bequeathed 
to  Rome. 


252 


ROME 


Changed 
position  of 
women. 


Political 
corruption 
due  to 
"bread  and 
games." 


Romans  were,  however,  rather  poor  imitators,  and  they 
were  not  intellectual  or  artistic  like  the  Greeks.^ 

Family  bonds  were  relaxed  under  the  new  era  that  had 
begun  at  Rome.  There  is  no  record  of  a  divorce  earlier 
than  the  first  Punic  war,  but  separations  occurred  with 
alarming  frequency  after  the  second  war  with  Carthage. 
Women  had  greater  legal  freedom  also,  from  this  time, 
the  father  no  longer  having  the  full  rights  of  ^'patria  po- 
testas,"  that  is,  absolute  control  as  '^  pater  familias." 

329.  Introduction  of  Public  Games.  —  Instead  of  the 
one  annual  festival  that  was  held  before  the  second  Punic 
war,  new  games  and  festivals  were  introduced.     These  in- 


aSTIANAX 


KaendiO    0 


Roman  Gladiators. 

eluded  fierce  combats  between  animals  and  between  men 
(gladiators)  with  short  swords  (§  380).  They  were  fre- 
quently held  at  the  expense  of  the  lesser  magistrates, 
whose  chance  of  election  to  higher  offices  usually  de- 
pended upon  the  pleasure  that  they  gave  to  the  Roman 
mob.  This  custom  and  the  distribution  of  grain  b}^ 
wealthy  men  who  wished  to  have  a  ''following"  led  to 


^  Many  Romans  had  already  lost  faith  in  their  own  religion  (§  280)  ; 
Greek  scepticism  was  welcomed.  Orgies  in  the  name  of  the  Greek  god 
Bacchus  were  practised  secretly  at  Rome  and  throughout  Italy.  Sooth- 
sayers from  Asia  flocked  to  the  capital  city.  Temples  were  erected  to 
the  Egyptian  Isis  and  to  numerous  other  foreign  deities. 


CHANGES  IN  ROME  253 

an  immense  amount  of  political  corruption  during  the 
last  century  and  a  half  of  the  republic. 

330.  The  Government  of  the  Provinces.  —  Rome  did   Roman  pro- 
not  set  out  to  create  an  empire  composed  of  provinces   ^^asTetter^ 
—  but  she  was  forced  to  borrow  or  develop  some  system  than  that 
of  government  for  the  subject  peoples  whom  she  con-  °  ^^^L^^^  ' 
quered.     The  method  of  government  for  the  early  prov- 
inces,  like  the  provinces  themselves,  was  Carthaginian. 
A  governor  with  almost  absolute  power  ruled  each  prov- 
ince,^ and  taxes  were  ^^  farmed  out  "  to  publicans.     Not 
all  of  the  cities  in  a  province  were  on  equal  footing  —  some 
were  still  allies ;    others  paid  tribute  while  a  few  became 
the  property  of  Rome.     In  general,  before  the  destruction 
of  Carthage,  it  may  be  said  that  Roman  rule  in  her  prov- 
inces and  in  the  states  of  dependent  allies  was  better  than 
the  rule  it  replaced.     Taxes  were  less  heavy  in  Macedonia 
under  Rome  than  they  had  been  under  the  Macedonian 
kings.     The  Roman  officials  were  honest  compared  with 
the  Greek  and  Carthaginian  rulers.     Yet  in  later  times 
the  misrule  of  the  provinces,  the  heavy  taxation  and  the 
sacrifice  of  business  in  the  cities  for  the  benefit  of  Rome 
are  blots  on  the  history  of  the  republic. ^ 

1  The  Roman  governors  were  usually  ex -magistrates  who  were  ap- 
pointed for  one  year,  later  for  three  years.  They  were  absolute  within 
the  provinces,  not  even  being  subject  to  the  senate  until  their  term  of 
office  had  expired.  They  controlled  the  provincial  army  of  which  there 
was  usually  need  on  the  borders  of  the  province  or  in  unruly  cities.  They 
issued  orders  and  enforced  the  laws.  If  a  provincial  had  a  grievance 
there  could  be  no  appeal  beyond  the  governor,  who  had  the  highest  ju- 
dicial power.  Through  a  subordinate,  the  governor  supervised  the 
finances. 

^  If  a  governor  plundered  a  province,  no  one  could  try  him  until  after 
his  term  was  over.  Then  he  was  brought  before  a  tribunal  of  fellow-sen- 
ators. If  convicted,  he  went  into  exile,  usually  at  his  country  home.  It 
was  a  common  saying,  when  the  governor's  term  was  three  years,  that  it 
took  the  plunder  of  the  first  year  to  pay  the  senate  for  giving  the  posi- 
tion, that  of  the  second  to  buy  off  the  jury,  leaving  only  the  plunder  of 
the  third  year  for  the  governor. 


254 


ROME 


Contrac- 
tors and 
Publicani 


Abuses  in 
tax  collec- 
tion. 


Extension 

and  results 
of  slavery. 


331.  The  Publicans.  —  The  acquisition  of  provinces 
added  greatly  to  the  pul^lic  })usiness  which  Rome  trans- 
acted through  contractors.  Taxes  had  to  be  collected 
in  a  province.  If  a  sewer  was  to  be  constructed,  a  road 
built,  or  a  public  ])uil(ling  erected,  the  work  was  done  by 
contract.  The  contracts  were  let  by  the  censors  at  five- 
year  intervals.  The  censors  estimated  the  amount  of 
revenue  that  each  province  should  bring ;  the  right  to 
collect  the  taxes  was  then  sold  to  the  highest  bidder. 
The  bidders  were  necessarily  capitalists.  These  associa- 
tions of  publicans  collected  the  customs  revenues  in 
Italy  and  farmed  the  taxes  in  the  provinces. 

The  pubhcans  collected  as  much  as  they  could,  usually 
far  in  excess  of  the  amounts  paid  into  the  public  treasury. 
If  a  man  did  not  pay  the  tenth  or  fifth  of  his  produce  that 
the  law  required,  or  did  not  pay  the  rent  on  his  land  which 
might  legally  belong  to  the  state,  he  might  be  cast  into 
prison  or  sold  into  slavery. 

332.  Slavery.  —  Slavery  grew  with  the  extension  of 
Roman  dominion.  Each  war  brought  thousands  of 
captives  who  were  sold  as  slaves.^  Slaves  were  employed 
in  large  numbers  on  the  great  estates  of  Italy  and  Sicily. 
They  were  not  treated  like  human  beings,  but,  being 
human,  revolted  in  terrible  slave  insurrections.  Sicily 
was  the  scene  of  three  prolonged  servile  wars  during  the 
century  after  the  fall  of  Carthage.  Slavery  made  the 
Romans  more  callous  and  corrupt  than  ever,  and  slave 
labor  caused  great  economic  crises. 

333.  The  Decline  of  the  Middle  Class.  —  Italy  had  once 
been   a   land   of   small   farmers,   sturdy,   self-supporting, 

1  One  of  the  most  upright  of  the  Roman  commanders,  -^milius  Paulus, 
sold  150,000  inhabitants  of  Epirus  into  slavery  (§321).  Ten  thousand  of 
the  most  intelligent  Greeks,  including  the  statesman  and  historian  Polyb- 
ius,  were  sent  to  Rome  practically  as  slaves  when  the  Achaean  league  was 
broken  up  (151  b.c).  Slave  raids  were  common,  and  the  island  of  Deloa, 
once  sacred  to  Apollo,  became  the  slave  market  of  the  Mediterranean. 


CHANGES  IN  ROME  255 

self-respecting  yeomen,  who  lived  plainly,  feared  the  gods  The  smaU 
and   reared   large   families.     The   Licinian   laws    (§  291)   J^r^Zama' 
had  attempted  to  help  this  class  by  distributing  the  pubhc   (202  b.c). 
lands  in  small  farms ;   but  these  laws  had  been  broken  by 
the  nobles  who  controlled  the  senate.     Then  came  Hanni- 
bal, whose  terrible  campaigns  devastated  Italy  and  kept 
the  farmers  under  arms,   when  they  should  have  been 
cultivating  their  crops. 

After  Hannibal,  wealthy  men  jDought  up  these  neglected  From  Zama 
farms.     The  other  yeomen  could  not  grow  grain  to  com-  q^.^^^^^^ 
pete  with  the  cheap  corn  of  Sicily  and  Africa.     Neither   (133  b.c). 
could  they  compete  with  the  large  sheep  and  cattle  estates 
of  their  wealthy  neighbors,  with  their  cheap  slave  labor 
and  broad  fields.     A  few  tried  raising  vines  and  olives, 
but  most  of  them  lacked  the  capital  and  the  skill  for  such 
enterprises.     Flocking  to  Rome,  these  men  crowded  the 
capital,  and  failing  to  find  work,  joined  the  city  rabble 
which  enjoyed  the  free  games  and  cheap  food.     Thus  the 
rich  grew  richer  and  the  poor  poorer ;   while  Rome,  nomi- 
nally governed  by  all  citizens,  yet  actually  ruled  by  the 
wealthy  but  corrupt  nobles,  was  drifting  into  new  diffi- 
culties which  neither  the  nobility  nor  the  peasant  could 
solve. 

334.  Summary.  —  The  territorial  history  of  the  west-  Supremacy 
ern  Mediterranean  during  the  four  centuries  from  550  B.C.   ?^  Carthage 

°  in  the 

to  146  B.C.  is  the  history  (1)  of  the  supremacy  of  Carthage  West  before 

in  the  West  and  (2)  of  the  conquest  of  Carthage  by  Rome,   ^o"^®- 

The   Carthaginians  supplanted  first   the   Etruscans  and 

later  the  western  Greeks,  especially  in  Sicily.     Carthage 

owed  her  supremacy  to  her  central  location,  to  her  trade 

and  tributary  provinces,  to  her  strong  navy,  her  stable 

government  and  her  able  leaders.     Carthage  was  inferior 

to  Rome  in  her  selfish  policy  toward  subject-states  and 

in  her  dependence  on  mercenaries  rather  than  on  citizen 

soldiers. 


256  ROME 

The  three  The  first  struggle  between  Rome  and  Carthage  began 

^mTthr^^^  in  264  B.C.  in  a  contest  for  Sicily.     Soon  after  the  Romans 

destruction  equipped  themselves  to  fight  on  the  sea,  they  acquired 

of  Carthage  si(^.iiy     ^nd    later,    Sardinia    and    Corsica.     The    second 

by  Rome.  .  ' 

Punic  war  was  the  war  waged  by  Hannibal  for  fifteen  years 
in  Italy   against   great   odds.     At   Cannae   he   destroyed 
the  flower  of  Rome's  troops,   but  he  could  not  break 
down  the  allegiance  of  Rome's  allies.     When  Hasdrubal 
was    defeated    at    the    Metaurus    (207),    Hannibal    was 
beaten,   although   he   did  not   acknowledge   defeat   until 
Zama  (202).     A  half  century  later,  in  146  B.C.,  Carthage 
was  destroyed  by  the  jealous  and  avaricious  Romans. 
Rome  mis-         Rome  expanded  to  the  east  as  soon  as  Carthage  was 
^lu^]  °^  *^®  out  of  the  way.     She  was  successful  against  the  kings  of 
Mediter-        Syria,  and  of  Macedon  (Pydna,  168  b.c.)  and  easily  over- 
ranean.  came  the  disunited  states  of  Greece.     Conquests  after 

146  B.C.  extended  Roman  dominions  to  the  Scottish  high- 
lands on  the  north,  to  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  on  the 
northeast,  to  the  Euphrates  on  the  east,  and  to  the  Sahara 
desert  on  the  south. 
Bad  results  Rome's  success  and  the  introduction  of  wealth  and 
^LT^^^~  luxury  from  abroad  made  her  people  less  religious  and 
moral.  She  was  no  longer  governed  by  the  people  but  by 
a  set  of  wealthy  senators.  The  provinces  were  badly 
ruled  and  the  provincials  were  oppressed  by  the  tax- 
farmers.  In  Italy  the  rise  of  great  estates,  the  spread  of 
slavery  and  the  decay  of  the  peasantry  prepared  the  way 
for  mob  rule  in  Rome,  for  the  ascendency  of  generals  and 
finally  for  the  empire. 


General  References 

West,  The  Roman  World,  Revised,  357-418. 
Seignobos,  History  of  the  Roman  People,  86-176. 
Seignobos,  Ancient  Civilization,  233-273. 
Freeman,  Chief  Periods  of  European  History,  29-59. 


sion. 


CHANGES  IN   ROME  257 

Pelham,  Outlines  of  Roman  History,  109-198. 
How  and  Leigh,  History  of  Rome,  131-326. 
Botsford,  Source  Book  of  Ancient  History,  379-416. 
Smith,  Rome  and  Carthage. 

Topics 

Carthage  :  How  and  Leigh,  History  of  Rome;  143-149 ; 
Cunningham,  Western  Civilization,  I,  140-150  ;  Smith,  Rome  and 
Carthage,  5-22. 

Hannibal:  Davis,  Readings,  II,  56-60;  Dodge,  Hannibal, 
642-653;    Plutarch,   Lives,   "Hannibal." 

MiSGOVERNMENT  OF  THE  PROVINCES '.  West,  Ancient  World, 
413-417;  Davis,  Influence  of  Wealth  in  Imperial  Rome,  16-23; 
Pelham,  Outlines  of  Roman  History,  173-189;  Cicero,  Oration 
Against  Verres. 

Studies 

1.  Etruscans,  Greeks  and  Carthaginians.  Freeman,  Story 
of  Sicily,  76-86, 

2.  Dionysius  and  Timoleon.  Botsford,  Source  Book  of  Ancient 
History,  241-246. 

3.  Rome  and  Carthage  before  the  first  Punic,  war.  Munro, 
Source  Book  of  Rome  and  History,  89-91. 

•    4.  Influence  of  sea  power    in  second    Punic  war.     Mahan, 
Influence  of  Sea  Power,  14-21. 

5.  Regulus,  an  old  Roman. 

6.  End  of  the  first  Punic  war.     Munro,  Source  Book,  81-84. 

7.  Hamilcar  Barca.  Botsford,  Source  Book  of  Ancient  His- 
tory, 380-382. 

8.  Hannibal  crossing  the  Alps.     Munro,  Source  Book,  85-86. 

9.  Cannae.     How  and  Leigh,  History  of  Rome,  194-198. 

10.  Metaurus.     Creasy,  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World,  ch,  IV. 

11.  Social  and  religious  changes  after  the  defeat  of  Hannibal. 
Seignobos,  History  of  the  Roman  People,  144-151. 

12.  Slavery  in  Rome.  Seignobos,  Ancient  Civilization,  255- 
261. 

13.  A  governor  in  his  province.  Church,  Roman  Life  in  the 
Days  of  Cicero,  247-266. 

14.  Tax  farmers  and  usurers  under  the  republic.  Davis, 
Influence  of  Wealth  in  Imperial  Rome,  23-36. 

15.  Causes  of  the  fall  of  the  republic.  How  and  Leigh, 
History  of  Rome,  322-326. 

s 


258  ROME 

Questions 

1.  What  were  the  three  great  steps  in  the  expansion  of  Rome  ? 
How  did  the  subjugation  of  Carthage  and  the  cities  of  East 
influence  Rome  ? 

2.  Outhne  the  struggle  in  the  western  Mediterranean:  (1)  be- 
tween the  Etruscans,  Greeks  and  Carthaginians ;  (2)  between 
the  Carthaginians  and  Greeks ;  (3)  between  Rome  and  Car- 
thage. 

3.  Who  were  Gelon,  Dionysius,  Timoleon,  Agathocles  and 
Pyrrhus  ?  What  were  Himera,  the  Sicilian  expedition  and  a 
PjTrhic  victory  ? 

4.  Show  the  importance  of  Carthage.  Consider  location, 
dominions,  trade,  government  and  navy.  Compare  Rome  with 
Carthage. 

5.  How  many  wars  were  there  between  Rome  and  Carthage  ? 
Characterize  each,  that  is,  explain  very  briefly  the  real  nature 
of  each  struggle. 

6.  Explain  the  policy 'of  Hannibal.  Give  an  account  of  his 
methods  and  describe  one  battle.  Why  did  not  the  allies  desert 
Rome  ?  Why  was  the  second  Punic  war  as  well  as  the  first 
decided  by  "sea  power,"  that  is,  by  the  control  of  the  sea? 

7.  Tell  about  the  conquest  of  Macedonia,  Syria  and  Greece. 
Why  was  Rhodes  humiliated  ?  Why  were  Corinth  and  Car- 
thage destroyed  ?  Why  were  Tyre,  Corinth  and  Carthage  after- 
ward rebuilt  ? 

8.  Draw  a  map  showdng  the  five  different  stages  in  Roman 
expansion.  Did  Rome  gain  more  territory  before  146  b.c.  or 
after  146  b.c?  Why  do  we  take  146  b.c.  as  the  end  of  the 
period  of  the  "expansion  of  the  nations"  ? 

9.  Name  the  three  classes  of  changes  in  Rome  during  the  sec- 
ond and  first  centuries  before  Christ.  Explain  each  as  fully  as 
possible.  First  name  the  chief  changes  under  each  class,  and  then 
explain  those  that  you  have  named.  Make  a  summary  of  this 
for  your  note-book. 

10.  Explain :  MylsB,  the  earliest  provinces,  Fabian  policy, 
Metaurus,  Zama,  Pydna,  Magnesia,  bequests  of  the  king  of 
Pergamum,  tax-farming,  publicans,  the  "city  rabble." 


PART   III 

THE  ROMAN  WORLD  STATE   (146  B.C.-476  A.D.) 


CHAPTER   XI 

THE     REVOLUTION    AND    IMPERIALISM 
(146  B.C.-14  A.D.) 

335.  The   Problem   of   Governing   the    Roman   World,   The  prob- 
133  B.C.  —  As  we  have  seen,  two  great  changes  had  been  ^^^\°.^  ^^' 

'  ^  ^  ganizing 

going  on  in  the  Mediterranean  world  during  the  second  the  Roman 
century  before  Christ;  (1)  the  expansion  of  the  Roman  ^^R^^^" 
power  until  practically  every  country  that  bordered 
on  the  Mediterranean  was  either  subject  to  Rome  or 
a  dependent  ally  of  Rome ;  and  (2)  the  decadence  of  the 
old  simple  life  and  spirit  of  the  Roman  people.  One 
part  of  the  problem  then  was  how  to  organize  these  conquered 
countries  into  a  siiigle  ''  empire,^''  or  vast  republic. 

Another  part  of  the  problem  was  the  question  as  to   The  prob- 
who  should  govern  this  immense  area.     Under  the  consti-  should  ^ov- 
tution  that  had  been  developed  during  the  early  years  of   em  the 
the  republic,  as  we  noticed,  after  287  b.c.  the  law  gave  the  ^o^li" 
power  of  governing  Rome  to  the  assemblies,  but  custom  and 
ability  had  left  it  to  the  senate.     Neither  the  assemblies 
nor  the  senate  knew  how  to  govern  properly  so  vast  a  realm 
as  the  Roman  armies  had  conquered.     In  133  the  senate 
was    not    only    governing    Roman    dominions    unwisely, 
but  the  senate  itself  was  narrow,  selfish,  and  incompetent. 
The  assemblies  were  just  as  incapable  of  governing,  for 
they  were  largely  made  up  of  self-seeking  merchants,  of 
property  owners  corrupted  by  unaccustomed  wealth  and 
slavery,  and  of  the  city  mob,  degraded  by  poverty. 

The  century  from  133  to  27  b.c.  was  taken  up  with  The  Revo- 
attempts  to  solve  these  two  problems.     This  century  after  ^"*^o"- 
133  B.C.  is  sometimes  called  the  century  of  the  Revolution. 

261 


262 


ROME 


Character 
and  pur- 
pose of  the 
Gracchi. 


Reforms 
and  death 
of  Tiberius. 


The     Early     Revolution  —  Revolt     against    Sena- 
torial Rule  (146-88  b.c.) 

336.  The  Reforms  of  the  Gracchi.  —  The  first  attack 
upon  the  senatorial  rule  came  from  two  brothers  of  noble 
aims  and  high  principles.  Ti-be'ri-us  and  Ga'ius  Grac'chus 
belonged  to  a  plebeian  family  of  nobles,  and  through  their 
mother,  the  famous  Cor-ne'li-a,  were  descended  from 
Scipio  Africanus,  the  Elder.  Their  real  purpose  was  to 
relieve  the  distress  of  the  poor  citizens  who  had  been  driven 
from  their  farms  (§  333)  in  the  vain  effort  to  find  a  living 
in  Rome. 

337.  Tiberius  Gracchus.  —  Having  been  elected  trib- 
une in  133  B.C.,  Tiberius  Gracchus  tried  to  get  a  redistri- 
bution of  the  public  lands,  according  to  the  Licinian 
laws  (§  291).  This  aroused  the  enmity  of  the  senators, 
many  of  whom  had  occupied  large  blocks  of  state  land 
which  they  did  not  wish  to  give  up.  Tiberius  appealed 
to  the  people  in  assembly  and  they  passed  his  law,  as  they 
had  a  legal  right  to  do,  but  they  were  obliged  to  remove  a 
tribune  who  had  vetoed  the  law  at  the  request  of  the  sena- 
torial party.  This  was  a  very  ancient  use  of  the  modern 
method  that  we  term  the  "  recall."  Tiberius  then  tried  to 
secure  his  own  reelection  as  tribune,  although  the  law  did  not 
provide  for  reelection.  The  senators,  alarmed  at  the  great 
increase  in  the  tribune's  power  under  Tiberius,  and  fearing 
the  loss  to  themselves  if  his  programme  of  reform  was  com- 
pleted, attacked  him  in  the  city  streets  and  put  him  to 
death.  Thus  violence  pointed  the  way  to  the  military 
rule  which  finally  overthrew  the  republic.  But  the  death, 
of  Tiberius  did  not  end  his  work,  for  later  censuses  show 
that  within  a  few  years  the  number  of  land  owners  in  Italy 
increased  80,000. 

338.  The  Work  of  Gaius  Gracchus  (123  B.C.).  —  Gains 
Gracchus  continued  the  work  of  Tiberius  for  the  relief  of 


THE   EARLY   REVOLUTION  263 

the  peasants  in  Rome  and  in  Italy.     In  addition  he  devel-  Gaius 

oped  plans  for  the  complete  reorganization  of  the  Roman  ^^^cchus 

government.     In   two   successive   terms   as   tribune/   he  tribunate 

sought  to  make  himself  legal  ruler  of  Rome.     To  do  this  powerful 

Ml  r  ^^^  plans 

Gaius  made  the  tribune  by  far  the  most  powerful  magis-  many 
trate  in  the  government.  He  relieved  the  city  of  many  ^^fo"^s. 
of  its  poor  by  continuing  the  distribution  of  the  public 
lands,  and  by  sending  out  colonists  outside  of  Italy.  He 
gained  the  favor  of  the  city  voters  by  distributing  grain 
at  half  price.  This  followed  a  custom  that  had  been  used 
by  many  nobles,  but  was  a  dangerous  practice  which  he 
probably  intended  should  be  temporary.  It  was  used 
later  by  demagogues  and  generals  to  win  popular  favor 
and  was,  unfortunately,  the  only  law  of  Gaius  Gracchus 
that  survived. 

His  downfall  came  with  his  statesmanlike  suggestion  Gaius 
that   citizenship  should  be   extended  to  the   Italians,   a  ^^^'^^"^^ 

^  _  /  IS  over- 

proposal  that  united  the  senate  and  the  city  mob  against   thrown  by 

him.  When  Gaius  Gracchus  failed  to  secure  a  second  senate, 
reelection  as  tribune,  a  senatorial  force  attacked  his  fol- 
lowers in  the  streets,  killing  him  and  three  thousand  of 
his  supporters.  The  senate  quickly  reestablished  its 
supremacy  and  undid,  so  far  as  it  could,  the  work  of 
Gracchus,  but  it  could  not  conceal  the  need  of  reform,  nor 
destroy  the  demand  for  it.     A  revolution  had  begun. 

339.  The  Briberies  of  Jugurtha.  —  For  several  years  The  wars 
after  the  death  of  Gaius  Gracchus,  Rome  was  ruled  by  j^^^^j-tha 
the  senate,  which  was  corrupt  and  inefficient.  The  revolt 
of  the  people  against  this  misrule  was  brought  about  by 
the  failure  of  the  war  against  Ju-gur'tha,  who  had  seized 
the  throne  of  Nu-mid'i-a  in  Africa  and  had  bribed  and 
defeated  every  army  that  the  senate  sent  against  him. 
He  was  summoned  to  Rome  to  answer  charges  against 
him,  of  massacring  thousands  of  Roman  subjects,  but  he 

1  A  man  could  now  hold  the  position  of  tribune  more  than  one  year. 


264 


ROME 


Marius 
conquers 
Jugurtha 
and  the 
Germans. 


By  yielding 
citizenship 
Rome 

finally  over- 
throws the 
Italians. 


bought  his  freedom.  On  his  departure  he  is  reported  to 
have  said,  "  Oh,  city  for  sale  and  doomed  to  speedy  ruin, 
if  it  finds  a  purchaser." 

340.  Marius,  the  Saviour  of  Rome.  —  The  people 
demanded  a  leader  who  was  incorruptible.  They  found 
one  in  Gains  Ma'ri-us,  an  uneducated  man  of  humble 
parentage,  but  an  able  general.  Marius  found  the  army 
honeycombed  with  corruption.  He  reformed  it,  defeated 
Jugurtha  and  his  allies,  and,  with  the  aid  of  Lu'cius  Sul'la, 
captured  Jugurtha.  He  was  at  once  reelected  consul 
and  was  recalled  to  Italy  to  repel  the  invasion  of  two 
hordes  of  Germans,  the  Cim'bri  and  the  Teu-ton'es. 
These  tribes,  having  defeated  four  consuls,  were  threaten- 
ing to  seize  the  rich  lands  of  northern  Italy  and  plund(T 
the  wealthy  cities.  Six  years  in  succession  Marius  held 
the  consulship.  In  102,  at  Aquae  Sex'ti-2e,  in  Southern 
Gaul,  he  destroyed  the  huge  force  of  the  Teutones,  and  the 
next  year,  at  the  Raud'ine  plain  in  northern  Italy,  he  anni- 
hilated the  Cimbri  as  well.  For  four  centuries,  Rome  was 
comparatively  free  from  invasion  by  the  barbarians. 

341.  The  Social  War.  —  Marius  made  the  army  demo- 
cratic by  abolishing  social  distinctions  and  by  admitting 
landless  men  from  Rome  and  Italy  into  the  legions,  but 
he  did  nothing  for  the  Italians.  As  the  Italians  were  op- 
pressed by  the  Romans,  they  formed  a  new  Italian  state 
which  they  defended  in  a  war  known  as  the  social  war, 
from  the  Latin  word  "  socii,"  meaning  allies.^  Rome 
took  prompt  and  vigorous  measures  to  crush  the  revolts, 
but  the  Italians  were  not  conquered.  Then  the  Roman 
government  offered  full  citizenship  to  those  Italians  who 
had  remained  loyal.     Later  the  same  rights  were  granted 


1  A  tribune,  Marcus  Drusus,  tried  to  secure  for  the  discontented 
Italians  the  rights  of  citizenship  which  Gaius  Gracchus  had  proposed  for 
them.  His  law  was  passed,  but  Drusus  was  assassinated,  and  the  law 
was  vetoed  by  the  senate. 


STRUGGLE  OF  LEADERS  FOR  SUPREMACY   265 


to  those  who  swore  allegiance  to  Rome  within  sixty  days.^ 
These  laws  and  a  vigorous  campaign  by  Sulla  ended  the 
war,  although  more  blood  was  shed  before  the  new  Italian 
citizens  were  finally  enrolled  as  voters.  The  number  of 
Roman  citizens  loas  more  than  doubled  by  these  changes^ 
and  Italy  from  the  Rubicon  to  Tarentum  was  united  into  a 
single  state. 

The  Struggle   of  Military  Leaders  for  Supremacy 

(88-46  B.C.) 

342.  The  War  with  Mithridates  (88-84  B.C.).  — 
Disorder  and  violence  were  common  features  of  the  party 
strife  that  went  on  at  Rome  each  year,  but  as  yet  no 
leader  had  used  an  organized  army  to  secure  power. 
Sulla,  the  aristocrat,  champion  of  the  senate,  was  the  first  to 
introduce  the  army  into  Roman  politics.  Unfortunately 
he  had  many  successors.  He  did  this  in  order  to  secure 
command  of  the  force  to  be  sent  against  Mith-ri-da'tes, 
king  of  Pontus.  The  assembly  had  voted  that  Marius, 
the  democratic  leader,  should  have  the  command  ;  the  sen- 
ate, on  the  contrary,  selected  Sulla,  the  leader  of  the 
aristocrats. 2 

Mithridates  seemed  as  great  a  danger  as  the  invasions  of 
the  Cimbri  and  the  Teutones  a  few  years  earlier.  He 
was  king  of  Pontus,  on  the  south  shore  of  the  Black  Sea.^ 

^  The  Italians  wanted  full  rights  of  citizenship  as  a  protection. 
They  did  not  care  particularly  about  voting  in  Rome,  but  they  did  wish 
to  be  able  to  protect  themselves  from  insult  and  their  property  from 
seizure.     Only  full  citizens  were  really  able  to  do  this. 

2  As  soon  as  Sulla  left  Italy,  however,  Marius  and  his  friends  re- 
entered Rome,  where  they  murdered  the  friends  of  Sulla  and  plundered 
their  homes.  Marius  was  no  longer  an  able  general  and  a  wise  leader, 
but  a  harsh,  revengeful  old  man  who  died  soon  after  this  Ijutchery. 

^  He  was  a  man  of  gigantic  stature,  able,  and  cruel,  but  with  a  polish 
that  came  from  a  Greek  education.  On  an  appointed  day  he  had 
massacred  all  of  the  Italians  in  Asia  Minor,  men,  women  and  children, 
numbering  perhaps  one  hundred  thousand. 


Contest  foi 
command 
in  the 
Mithri- 
datic  war 

(SS  B.C.). 


Conquests 
and  mas- 
sacres of 
Mithri- 
dates in 
the  East. 


266 


ROME 


Sulla  con- 
quers 
Mithri- 
dates. 


Sulla's    pro- 
scriptions 
(82). 


Having  conquered  his  immediate  neighbors,  he  had  in- 
cited all  of  the  eastern  provinces  of  Rome  to  revolt. 
Mithridates  then  crossed  into  Greece  and  was  joined  by 
the  Greeks  and  many  of  the  Macedonians. 

Although  Sulla  had  only  a  small  army,  he  had  no  great 
difficulty  in  defeating  the  forces  of  Mithridates  and  driving 
them  out  of  Europe.  Mithridates  was  glad  to  make 
peace  by  surrendering  most  of  his  conquests  in  Asia  Minor. 
He  preferred  to  wait  for  a  more  favorable  time  to  attack 
Rome  (§344). 

343.  The  Rule  of  Sulla.  —  After  conquering  Mithri- 
dates, Sulla  returned  to  Italy,  which  the  democratic  party 
defended  to  the  best  of  their  ability.  By  a  victory  just 
outside  the  Colline  Gate  of  Rome,  he  gained  complete 
control  of  the  government.  Sulla  immediately  l)egan  a 
series  of  proscriptions  in  which  he  and  his  followers 
murdered  their  enemies  and  seized  their  property.  No 
one's  Hfe  was  safe,  for  a  fresh  list  of  those  that  might  be 
killed  for  a  reward  was  published  every  day,  and  private 
enmity  or  greed  caused  the  death  of  many  men  of  ability 
or  wealth  who  had  not  opposed  Sulla.  The  horrors  of 
these  fiendish  proscriptions  were  not  forgotten  for  two 
generations.  Sulla  completed  his  work  by  reestablishing 
the  rule  of  the  senate  in  a  constitution  which  also  intro- 
duced some  necessary  reforms.^  The  constitution  lasted 
barely  a  decade,  but  Sulla  had  set  an  example  of  rule  by 
'^  blood  and  iron  "  that  other  Romans  were  quick  to  follow. 


1  Sulla  restored  the  rule  of  the  senate.  He  tried  to  cripple  the  tribune 
by  not  allowing  a  person  who  had  been  tribune  to  hold  any  other  office. 
These  changes  lasted  but  a  few  years.  Other  changes  lasted  longer.  He 
increased  the  number  of  financial  and  judicial  officers  in  Rome  and  Italy, 
since  more  were  needed.  He  prescribed  that  none  should  hold  important 
offices  until  he  had  served  in  lesser  offices,  thus  giving  the  higher  magis- 
trates training  for  their  work.  These  reforms  might  have  been  valuable, 
had  not  Rome  already  abandoned  civil  rule  for  leadership  by  its  great 
generals. 


STRUGGLE  OF  LEADERS  FOR  SUPREMACY  267 


344.  Pompey.  —  Soon  after  the  death  of  Sulla,  a  young  Conrjuests 
man  named  Pom'pey  became  the  most  prominent  citizen  ^  ompey. 
of  Rome.  Pompey  had  helped 
Sulla,  had  conquered  Spain  by 
the  aid  of  assassins  and  had 
put  clown  the  revolt  of  the 
gladiators  under  Spar'ta-cus. 
In  a  remarkably  short  cam- 
paign of  forty  days,  Pompey 
swept  the  pirates  from  the 
eastern  Mediterranean.  Then 
he  again  conquered  Mithri- 
dates,  accepting  all  of  the  glory 
that  belonged  to  his  immedi- 
ate predecessor.  Pompey  also 
invaded  Syria  and  Palestine. 
In  Jerusalem  Pompey  not  only 
visited  the  temple  but  entered 
the  Holy  of  Holies.  He  thus 
gave  Rome  a  claim  to  lands  in 
the  east  Mediterranean  coast, 
as  well  as  most  of  Asia  Minor.  oinpc.v 

345.  Cicero  and  the    Conspiracy  of    Catiline.  —  While   Catiline's 
Pompey  was  in  the  East  an  attempt  was  made  by  Cat'i-Une  ^'*^^* 

to  gain  control  of  the  government  of  Rome.  He  gathered 
about  himself  an  army  of  discontented  men.  When  Catiline 
was  denounced  in  the  senate  by  Cic'e-ro,  who  was  consul 
that  year,  he  fled  and  his  army  was  destroyed. 

Cicero  was  an  able  man  and  a  great  orator.  He  was  a 
"  new  man,"  since  he  did  not  belong  to  one  of  the  families 
that  held  most  of  the  offices.  His  orations  and  writings 
were  polished  and  interesting,  but  Cicero  was  vain  and 
timid.  The  work  of  preserving  and  reorganizing  Rome 
was  left  to  men  of  tougher  fibre. 

346.  The  First  Triumvirate.  —  When  Pompey  returned 


Cicero,  the 
man  and 
the  orator. 


268 


ROME 


The  alli- 
ance of 
Poiupoy 
Crassus 
and 
Caesar. 


Julius 
Csesar. 


Caesar 
conquers 
Gaul,  and 
Gaul  gives 
him  mili- 
tary help. 


to  Rome,  after  the  defeat  of  Mithridates  and  the  pirates, 
with  a  great,  if  rather  undeserved,  miUtary  reputation,  he 
found  that  the  ruHng  nobles  were  jealous  of  his  fame.  He 
therefore  allied  himself  with  a  rich  man  named  Cras'sus 
and  an  exceedingly  popular  patrician,  Ju'lius  Cae'sar. 
This  alliance  of  Pompey,  Csesar  and  Crassus  was  called 
the  first  tri-umVi-rate.  These  three  men  practically 
dominated  Rome.  After  a  year  as  consul,  Csesar  was  ap.- 
pointed  proconsul  of  Gaul  for  five  years. 

347.  Julius  Caesar.  —  Julius  Caesar  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting,  as  well  as  one  of  the  ablest  men  of  history. 
Although  he  belonged  to  a  patrician  family,  he  was  related 
by  marriage  to  Marius,  the  leader  of  the  popular  party, 
and  had  sided  with  Marius  against  Sulla.  After  Sulla's 
death  he  had  been  elected  to  positions  in  which  he  had 
entertained  the  populace  of  Rome  at  great  expense,  his 
creditors  paying  the  bills.  Csesar  realized  as  perhaps  few 
men  did  that  Rome  could  never  be  governed  again  by 
either  the  senate  or  the  assembly.  Since  Rome  must  be 
ruled  by  one  man,  a  military  leader,  Csesar  decided  to  be 
that  man,  and  he  sought  in  Gaul  the  army  that  should 
make  him  ma-ster  of  Rome. 

Csesar  conquered  Gaul  in  a  series  of  brilliant  cam- 
paigns that  he  describes  graphically  and  simply  in  his 
well-known,  if  not  well-beloved,  book  on  the  Gallic  war. 
By  skilful  diplomac}'  he  solved  the  serious  problems 
of  the  Gallic  tribes.  Caesar  united  Gaul  and  made  it 
half-civilized,  giving  the  province  a  firm,  wise  rule.  Gaul 
helped  him  even  more,  for  it  gave  him  military  experi- 
ence. It  furnished  him  an  army  of  veterans  who  were 
greatly  attached  to  him  and  would  do  anything  for 
him. 

348.  Pompey  versus  Caesar.  —  Csesar  needed  this  ex- 
perience and  this  help.  The  senate  and  Pompey,  fearing 
Csesar,  told  him  to  give  up  his  command  and  return  to 


THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  AN   EMPIRE        269 

Rome.     Knowing  that  he  would  not  be  safe  in  Rome   By  defeat- 
if  he  were  alone,  Caesar  crossed  the  Ru'bi-con  River  with  JJ^^^  ^^^^ 
his  army  (49  b.c.).^      Pompey  and  his  friends  immediately   becomes 
fled.     Caesar  at  once  made  himself  master  of  Rome  and  ^q^^^!^  ° 
Italy,  treating  with  generosity  his  opponents  who  had  re- 
mained.    With  his  army  he  followed  Pompey  into  Greece, 
where  he  defeated  him.     Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,  where 
his  head  was  brought  to  the  conqueror.     In  three  years 
from  the  time  that  he  crossed  the  Rubicon,  Coesar  had  made 
himself  master  of  the  Mediterranean  world. 


The  Establishment  of  an  Empire,  46  e.g.- 14  a.d. 

349.  The  Work  of  Caesar.  —  In  order  to  carry  on  his 
work  Caesar  concentrated  in  his  own  hands  almost  auto- 
cratic powers.  Not  only  was  he 
im-per-a'tor,  that  is,  military  com- 
mander, but  he  held  the  offices  of 
dictator,  consul  and  many  others. ^ 
Caesar  enlarged  the  senate  and  per- 
mitted some  provincials,  especially 
the  Gauls,  to  have  full  Roman  citi- 
zenship. 

By  establishing  sound  govern- 
ment in  Rome,  Caesar  virtually 
changed  the  decaying  and  disor- 
derly republic  into  an  empire.  He 
looked  after  the  health  and  order 
of  the  imperial  city.     He  reduced  the  mob  that  had  been 

1  The  Rubicon  separated  Italy  from  a  province  on  the  north.  Gov- 
ernors were  not  allowed  to  return  to  Italy  with  their  armies,  an  act  of 
that  kind  being  considered  treason.  That  is  the  reason  that  Caesar  hesi- 
tated at  the  Ruliicon  and  finally  plunged  in,  saying,  "The  die  is  cast." 

2  He  exercised  the  powers  of  chief  judge  and  of  trilmne.  He  could 
not  hold  the  office  of  tribune,  since  he  belonged  to  a'  patrician  family. 
Naturally  all  branches  of  the  government  were  under  his  authority,  so 
that  Rome  and  her  dominions  were  governed  according  to  his  wishes. 


Julius  Csesar. 


Powers 
held  by 
Julius 
Csesar. 


Political 
and  social 
reforms  of 
Csesar. 


270 


ROME 


Cajsar's 
death. 


Octavius 
and  his 
associates. 


fed  at  public  expense,  partly  by  establishing  in  the  prov- 
inces colonies  of  Roman  citizens,  a  scheme  proposed  by 
Gaius  Gracchus  years  before.  By  making  the  provincial 
governors  responsible  directly  to  himself,  and  by  creat- 
ing a  system  of  more  direct  taxation  Caesar  gave  to 
the  provinces  a  much  better  and  a  much  less  costly 
government.  He  introduced  the  calendar  from  Egypt, 
since  New  Year's  day  under  the  old  Roman  calendar 
came  only  a  short  time  before  the  spring  solstice  in  March. 
One  of  the  months  of  the  reformed  calendar  he  named  after 
himself,  July.  These  examples  of  reform  show  how  exten- 
sive and  thorough  were  the  changes  made  by  Caesar. 

350.  The  Second  Triumvirate.  —  Caesar's  autocratic 
rule  aroused  against  him  the  envy  of  many  who  wished  to 
overthrow  him.  As  Shakespeare  has  so  vividly  told  us, 
Cassius  and  Brutus  were  among  the  leaders  of  the  con- 
spiracy against  Caesar.  In  March,  44  B.C.,  Caesar  was 
attacked  in  the  capitol  and  fell,  mortally  wounded,  at  the 
foot  of  Pompey's  statue. 

Caesar's  work  did  not  die  with  him.  His  nephew  and 
adopted  son,  Oc-taVi-us,  arranged  a  second  triumvirate 
with  Mark  Antony  and  Lepidus,  Caesar's  master  of  the 
horse.  Octavius,  although  a  mere  youth  at  this  time, 
showed  himself  a  cold-blooded  and  unprincipled  schemer. 
Without  mercy  these  three  triumvirs  hunted  down  their 
enemies  in  Rome  and  abroad.  So  many  estates  were 
confiscated  by  the  triumvirs  that  no  buyers  for  land 
could  be  found,  although  it  was  offered  at  very  low 
prices.  For  years  Italy  had  been  losing  her  people, 
who  had  gone  to  Rome  or  the  provinces.  After  the  pro- 
scriptions of  the  triumvirs  farms,  hamlets  and  even  cities 
were  practically  aVjandoned. 

351.  The  Success  of  Octavius.  —  After  ten  years  of 
autocratic  rule,  Lepidus  having  been  dropped,  Antony 
and  Octavius  quarrelled.     Their  forces  met  at  Ac'ti-um 


THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  AN   EMPIRE        271 


(31  B.C.)  off  the  west  coast  of  Greece.  Antony  and  his 
sweetheart,  Cle-o-pa'tra,  Queen  of  Egypt,  sailed  away, 
leaving  their  fleet  to  its  fate.  A  little  later  Antony  com- 
mitted suicide  in  Egypt  in  order  that  he  might  not  be 
captured  by  Octavius. 

Cleopatra  was  considered  the  most  beautiful  woman  of 
her  time.  She  had  charmed  Pompey,  and  Caesar  and 
Antony,  but  her  charms  made  no  impression  on  Octavius. 
Rather  than  march  through  the  streets  of  Rome  in  the 
''  triumph  "  of  Octavius,  Cleopatra  killed  herself. 

Octavius  was  now  master  of  the  Roman  world.  On 
his  return  to  Rome  he  celebrated  a  triumph  and  closed  the 
gates  of  the  temple  of  Janus,  an  act  signifying  that  the 
Roman  world  was  at  peace.  But  three  times  had  these 
gates  been  closed  since  the  days  of  Romulus. 

352.  The  Need  of  Empire.  —  The  people  welcomed  the 
strong  rule  of  one  man  because  they  were  tired  of  the 
quarrels  between  military  leaders.  During  the  preceding- 
century  there  had  been  so  much  disorder  in  Rome  and  in 
Italy  that  life  was  not  safe.  On  the  sea  piracy  was  common, 
even  after  the  time  of  Pompey.  In  some  of  the  provinces 
brigandage  was  continuous ;  in  others  it  was  merely  inter- 
mittent.    The  empire  promised  peace. 

There  was  need  of  a  strong  hand  to  protect  business 
and  stop  the  exploitation  of  all  Roman  possessions.  A  law 
had  already  been  passed  reducing  the  rate  of  interest  that 
capitalists  might  charge  to  one  per  cent  a  month.  A 
government  was  needed  that  would  enforce  this  law,  that 
would  safeguard  proper  investments  of  capital,  at  the 
same  time  that  it  checked  speculation. 

353.  Changing  Conditions  in  the  Roman  World.  —  The 
Roman  world  had  been  prepared  for  a  Roman  empire  in 
many  ways.  Rome  was  no  longer  a  city  of  Romans.  It 
was  cosmopolitan,  its  population  being  made  up  chiefly  of 
provincials  and  other  foreigners.     As  rulers,  merchants  or 


Octavius 
becomes 
master  of 
the    Roman 
world. 


Cleopatra. 


The  return 
of  Augustus 
to  Rome. 


Need  of 
peace  and 
order. 


Protection 
of  business. 


Growing 

unity 

within 

Roman 

world. 


272 


ROME 


Political, 
econoniif 
and  social 
demoraliza- 
tion of 
Rome  and 
Italy. 


Autocratic 
powers  held 
by  Augus- 
tus. 


soldiers,  the  Romans  and  Italians  had  gone  to  every  part 
of  the  Roman  world.  The  Mediterranean  world  was 
becoming  Romanized  (§§  382-387).  It  was  demanding 
a  government  capable  of  ruling  a  world-state. 

As  neither  the  senate  nor  the  assemblic^s  had  ])een  ca- 
pable of  ruling  the  empire,  Rome  and  Italy  had  become 
demoralized.  Bribery,  vote-selling  and  mob  influence  were 
not  the  worst  evils  that  existed.  In  business,  men  seemed 
to  have  lost  all  idea  of  right  and  wrong.  There  was  little 
respect  for  the  sacredness  of  family  life.  The  moral 
standards  of  society  were  shockingly  low.  Although  these 
changes  were  not  due  to  the  lack  of  good  government, 
they  were  aggravated  by  the  misrule  of  the  preceding 
century.     In  time,  with  better  government,  the  conditions 

in  Rome  and  Italy 
improved  very  much. 
354.  The  Rule  of 
Augustus,  —  As  soon 
as  Octavius  was  in 
control  of  the  Roman 
world,  he  offered  to 
give  up  all  of  the 
extraordinary  offices 
that  he  held  and  re- 
store the  rule  of  the 
senate  and  assembly. 
The  people  at  once 
thrust  new  honors  on 
him,  proclaiming  him 
Au-gus'-tus,  27  B.C., 
and  adding  to  his 
office  of  imperatcr, 
from  which  we  get  our  word  emperor,  the  power  of  con- 
sul within  the  city  and  proconsul  outside.  He  himself 
preferred  to  be  called  prin'ceps,  that  is,  first  citizen,  some- 


Augustus. 


THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  AN  EMPIRE        273 

what  like  Pericles,  the  ''  uncrowned  king  "  of  Athens, 
and  he  referred  to  the  years  of  his  reign  by  the  years 
that  he  held  the  power  of  tribune.  He  did  this  to  gain 
favor  with  the  common  people,  the  tribune  being  pri- 
marily a  popular  official. 

Although    Augustus    held    almost    absolute    authority^   The  pres- 
he  carefully  preserved  the  forms  of  republican  rule.     The  ^J^^e^^^u 
assemblies    met,    made    laws,    and    elected    magistrates,   lican  forms 
The  senate  deliberated  as  in  former  years.     The  rule  of  ^^    . 

•^  empire. 

Augustus  was  one  of  influence  as  well  as  power,  for  he 
was  now  moderate,  kind  and  beloved  by  his  people. 

355.  The    Provinces    under    Augustus.  —  As    a    wise  The  two 
general  and  statesman,  Augustus  extended  the  territories   ^^^^^^^  ^^ 

^  _  .  provmces 

of  the  empire  to  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  on  the  north,  and  their 
to  the  Euphrates  on  the  east  and  to  the  Sahara  desert  on  ^^^^^^~ 
the  south.  He  reorganized  the  provinces,  continuing 
the  provincial  reforms  of  Julius  Caesar.  He  divided  all 
provinces  into  two  classes,  the  senatorial  and  the  imperial. 
The  senatorial  provinces  were  the  older  and  more  settled 
provinces  which  were  directly  under  the  supervision  of  the 
senate.  The  more  distant  and  exposed  provinces  Augus- 
tus kept  under  his  own  direct  supervision,  since  the  army 
was  needed  to  repress  outbreaks  of  the  people  or  invasions 
from  abroad.  The  provinces  became  orderly,  and  a  juster 
method  of  collecting  taxes  greatly  lightened  the  burdens 
of  the  oppressed  provincials. 

356.  Rome    under    Augustus.  —  Augustus    ruled    the  Public 
empire  until  his  death  in  14  a.d.     He  was  therefore  able  to   ^uiidmgs 

and  im- 

do  a  great  deal  more  both  for  the  provinces  and  for  Rome  provements 
than  Julius  Caesar  had  been  able  to  do  in  the  two  or  three  of  Augustus. 
years  of  his  rule.     So  many  improvements  did  Augustus 
make  in  the  imperial  city  that  he  could  justly  boast  that 
he  "  found  Rome  brick  and  left  it  marble."  ^ 

1  This  applies  to  the  public  thoroughfares  and  buildings,  not  to  the 
homes  of  the  people. 
T 


274 


ROME 


Bread  and 
games  for 
the  popu- 
lace. 


Deification 
of  the 
emperor. 


Germany 
remains 
free  from 
Roman 
influence. 


The  birth 
of  Jesus 
Christ. 


Augustus  was  very  generous  to  the  people.  He  ex- 
tended the  number  of  persons  to  whom  free  corn  was 
granted.  He  furnished  more  elaborate  games  and  amuse- 
ments for  free  entertainments  of  the  populace.  By  his 
direction  the  water  supply  of  Rome  was  improved  greatly. 
But  when  the  people  suggested  that  free  corn  and  free 
water  should  be  supplemented  by  free  wine,  even  good- 
natured  Augustus  rebelled. 

After  his  death  Julius  Caesar  was  deified  by  the  Romans. 
Augustus  did  not  wait  for  death,  but  set  up  in  many  places 
in  the  provinces  altars  for  the  joint  worship  of  Rome  and 
Augustus.  Thus  we  see  that  it  was  Augustus'  ambition 
to  be  not  only  the  ruler  of  Rome,  but  to  be  associated  also 
with  the  gods  as  the  divine  ruler  of  the  empire. 

357.  Germany  and  Palestine  under  Augustus.  —  The 
reign  of  Augustus  brought  epoch-making  changes  to 
Germany  and  Judea.  The  Germans  had  pressed  across 
the  Rhine  so  many  times  that  Augustus  decided  to  invade 
Germany.  One  of  his  generals  crossed  to  the  Elbe,  but 
a  few  years  later  (9  a.d.)  the  Germans  under  Ar-min'i-us 
rose  in  rebellion  against  the  Roman  governor,  \^ar'us,  and 
destroyed  a  Roman  army.  After  news  of  the  disaster 
reached  Rome,  Augustus  was  heard  to  exclaim,  ''  Varus, 
Varus,  give  me  back  my  legions."  The  attempt  to  make 
Germany  a  Roman  province  was  abandoned,  and  the 
Germans  were  allowed  to  develop  without  coming  directly 
under  Roman  influence. 

During  the  reign  of  Augustus  a  leader  far  greater  than 
Augustus  was  born  (5  B.C.),  in  the  little  village  of  Beth- 
lehem, in  Judea.  The  birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  with  his  teach- 
ing, and  crucifixion  and  resurrection  under  Augustus' 
successor,  Ti-ber'i-us,  introduced  into  ancient  civilization 
a  new  element  whose  influence  upon  humanity  was  to 
exceed  that  of  the  justly  famous  civilizations  of  Greece 
and  Rome. 


THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  AN   EMPIRE        275 

358.  Roman  Literature.  —  Augustus  and  many  of  his   Literature 
supporters  patronized  letters  very  liberally.     In  the  last   before 
years  of  the  republic  there  had  been  several  distinguished 
writers  in  Rome.     Cicero  (§  345)  was  famous  not  only  as 

an  orator,  but  as  a  man  of  letters.  He  has  left  us  some  of 
the  best  pictures  that  we  have  of  life  in  his  day.  Ccesar 
wrote  chiefly  of  war,  but  his  simple,  direct  style  makes 
his  writings  literature  instead  of  annals.  Sal'lust  was  a 
keen  writer  and  critic. 

The  reign  of  Augustus  produced  several  famous  writers   The  Golden 
and  this  period  is  frequently  called  the  Golden  Age  of  ^^^  °^ 
Roman  literature.     In  the  time  of  Augustus  Vir'gil  wrote  literature, 
his  great  epic,  the  .^neid  (§  130).     Li'vy  gathered  all  of 
the  old  legends  and  accounts,  writing  a  history  of  Rome  in 
more  than  a  hundred  books.     Like  Herodotus,  Livy  was 
rather  too  credulous  and  his  accounts  may  not  always  be 
absolutely  depended  upon.     Hor'ace  was  famous  for  his 
Odes  and  other  shorter  poems. 

Although  no  age  in  Roman  history  was  so  famous  for  Writers 
its  literature  as  that  of  Augustus,  the  period  immediately  ^^stus^^' 
following  produced  several  notable  writers  and  philos- 
ophers. Tac'i-tus  wrote  of  the  Germans  and  the  invasion 
of  Britain.  Many  of  the  quotations  in  chapter  XIV 
are  from  Tacitus.  Ju've-naVs  Satires  criticised  severely 
the  manners  and  morals  of  his  time.  Sen'e-ca,  the 
tutor  of  the  emperor  Nero,  and  Mar'cus  Au-re'li-us 
(§  394)  were  two  great  Roman  philosophers. 

359.  Summary.  —  In  133  B.C.  Rome  was  ruled  by  her  The  decline 
corrupt  nobles  through  the  senate.     An  attempt  was  made  ^^  ^^^^~ 
by  the  tribunes  Tiberius  and  Gains  Gracchus  to  over- 
throw the  power  of  the  senate  and  restore  that  of  the 

people.  Both  of  the  Gracchi  met  violent  deaths.  Marius 
saved  Rome  from  the  invasions  of  the  Cimbri  and  the 
Teutones,  but  he  could  not  establish  order.  The  Italians 
objected  to  the  narrow  policy  of  the  senate  and  secured 
the  right  to  help  rule  Rome. 


276 


ROME 


Rule  of 
Rome  by  a 
succession 
of  military 
conmian- 
dcrs. 


Caesar 
shows  the 
way  to  an 
empire 
which  Au- 
gustus es- 
tablished. 


After  the  admission  of  the  ItaHans  it  became  more  evi- 
dent that  Rome  must  be  ruled  by  one  man,  a  mihtary 
leader.  Marius  failed  to  become  ruler  of  Rome  because 
he  lacked  ability.  Sulla,  the  conqueror  of  Mithridates, 
king  of  Pontus,  next  became  the  leader  in  Rome,  using  his 
army  in  Italy  to  enforce  his  wishes.  Sulla  was  narrow 
and  vindictive  and  failed  partly  because  he  tried  to  rule 
through  the  senate.  Pompey  the  Great,  who  conquered 
the  East,  was  obliged  to  form  a  triumvirate  with  Caesar 
and  Crassus  in  order  to  have  power  in  Rome.  Later  he 
quarrelled  with  Csesar,  who  had  gained  an  army  and 
military  experience  in  Gaul.  Caesar  crossed  the  Rubicon 
into  Italy,  defeated  Pompey  at  Pharsalus  (48  B.C.),  and 
made  himself  master  of  Rome. 

Caesar  held  many  offices  and  ruled  Rome  wisely  but 
arbitrarily  until  he  was  assassinated  by  men  who  in- 
sisted on  having  a  republic.  His  adopted  son,  Octavius, 
after  forming  the  second  triumvirate,  quarrelled  with 
Anton}^  defeated  him  at  Actium  (31  b.c.)  and  made  him- 
self in  turn  master  of  Rome.  Rome  had  already  been 
prepared  for  empire,  politically,  economically  and  socially. 
Octavius  was  hailed  as  Augustus,  and  held  many  offices  or 
powers,  but  kept  up  the  forms  of  the  republic.  Really 
he  estabhshed  an  empire  (27  b.c).  He  reorganized  the 
provinces  into  two  classes,  senatorial  and  imperial.  He 
established  direct  taxes.  He  gave  Rome  a  better  water 
supply  and  finer  buildings.  In  his  reign,  which  has  been 
called  the  Golden  Age,  literature  flourished,  and  Jesus 
Christ  was  born.  For  two  centuries  after  Augustus  the 
Roman  empire  remained  at  its  height. 


General    References 

Botsl'ord,  Ilislorij  of  Ihr  Ancient  Worhl,  409-462. 

Botsford,  The  Story  of  Rome,  l.'39-241. 

Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient  Hiatorij,  II,  S5-181. 


THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF   AN   EMPIRE        277 

Beesly,  The  Gracchi,  Mcirius  and  Sulla. 
Seignobos,  History  of  the  Roman  People,  177-288. 
Pelham,  Outlines  of  Roman  History,  201-509. 
How  and  Leigh,  History  of  Rome,  322-557. 

Topics 

The  Work  of  Gaius  Gracchus  :  Botsford,  Source  Booh, 
421-425;  How  and  Leigh,  History  of  Rome,  343-357;  Beesly, 
The  Gracchi,  Marius  and  Sulla,  35-64  :  Plutarch,  Lives,  "Gaius 
Gracchus." 

The  Social  War  :  Seignobos,  Roman  People,  196-199 ;  How 
and  Leigh,  History  of  Rome,  399-412 ;  Heitland,  The  Roman 
Republic,  II,  423-458. 

C^SAR :  West,  The  Ancient  World,  445-457  ;  How  and  Leigh, 
History  of  Rome,  539-551  ;  Warde-Fowler,  Caesar,  326-359, 
379-384. 

The  Government  of  Augustus  :  Morey,  Outlines  of  Roman 
History,  217-224 ;  Capes,  Early  Empire,  6-23 ;  Jones,  Roman 
Empire,    1-19 ;    Pelham,    Outlines   of  Roman   History,   400-455. 

Studies 

1.  Tiberius  Gracchus,  Botsford  (eds.).  Story  of  Rome, 
160-166. 

2.  Corruption  of  the  senate  by  Jugurtha.  Davis,  Readings, 
II,  109-111. 

3.  The  reign  of  terror  under  Sulla.  Davis,  Readings,  II,  115- 
117. 

4.  Sertorius  in  Spain;     Plutarch,  Lives   (Ginn  ed.),  226-243. 

5.  The  revolt  of  Spartacus.  Guerber,  Story  of  the  Romans, 
167-170. 

6.  Caesar's  early  experience  as  a  Roman  official.  Davis, 
Readings,  II,  138-142. 

7.  A  Roman  candidate  for  the  consulship,  63  b.c.  Davis, 
Readings,  II,  129-135. 

8.  Conspiracy  of  Catiline.  Church,  Roman  Life  in  the  Days 
of  Cicero,  129-149. 

9.  Cicero  and  Demosthenes.  Lodge  (ed.).  World's  Classics, 
I,  190-196. 

10.  Gaul  in  the  time  of  Caesar.  Botsford  (eds.),  The  Story  of 
Rome,  202-210. 

11.  The  funeral  of  Caesar.     Davis,  Readings,  II,  154-158. 


278  ROME 

12.  Antony  and  Cleopatra.     Davis,  Readings,  II,  162-106. 

13.  The  deeds  of  Augustus.     Davis,    Rvndinqs,   II,    16()-172. 

14.  Augustus  as  a  social  and  religious  reformer.  P^irth, 
Augustus  C(Fsar,  199-221. 

15.  The  poet  Virgil.  Sandys  (ed.),  Coinpauion  to  Roman 
Studies,  619-621. 

l(j.  Deification   of  Augustus.     Capes,    Early   Empire,   41-44. 

Questions 

1.  Explain  as  clearly  as  possible  the  difference  between  the 
law  and  the  fact  in  the  government  of  Rome  133  b.c.  How  is 
the  corruption  of  Rome  shown  by  the  attempted  reforms  of  the 
Gracchi?     in  the  struggle  with  Jugurtha  ? 

2.  Compare  the  plans,  powers  and  work  of  Tiberius  and  Gains 
Gracchus. 

3.  How  did  the  Gracchi  injure  Rome  (1)  by  maintaining  their 
power  by  illegal  means  ?  (2)  by  distributing  cheap  grain  to  the 
people  ? 

4.  Show  the  importance  of  the  Social  War.  (Compare 
§  385,  next  chapter.) 

5.  What  did  Rome  owe  to  Marius,  Sulla  and  Pompey  as  mili- 
tary leaders  ?     as  civil  rulers  ? 

6.  Of  what  value  were  the  triumvirates  to  their  members? 
Could  a  triumvirate  be  possible  except  as  a  temporary  expedient, 
in  a  time  of  transition  ? 

7.  Make  a  table  showing  the  powers  held  by  Caesar  and 
Augustus,  and  the  reforms  made  by  each. 

8.  Show  how  the  Roman  world  was  prepared  for  empire, 
politically,  ecoiiomically,  socially. 

9.  Compare  taxation  and  the  rule  of  the  provinces  under  the 
late  republic  and  under  the  empire. 

10.  Why  did  Rome  need  an  imperial  government? 


CHAPTER   XII 

THE    ROMAN   WORLD 

Rome  and  the  Empire 

360.  Imperial  Rome  —  The  Forum.  —  The  Rome  of  The  Roman 
Augustus  and  his  successors  was  a  city  of  more  than  a  v°7^"-id^*^ 
milHon  people,  very  different  in  size  and  appearance  from  ings. 
that  ancient  Rome  which  had  defied  and  finally  had  de- 
feated Hannibal.  The  centre  of  the  Roman  world  is  still 
the  Forum/  a  long,  rather  narrow  area  between  Rome's 
two  most  famous  hills,  the  Capitoline  and  the  Palatine.^ 
In  the  views  of  the  Forum  on  the  next  page,  we  are 
looking  toward  Capitoline  hill.  At  the  extreme  left  we 
see  the  palaces  of  the  Caesars.  Near  the  centre  the  base 
of  the  basilica  of  Julius  (Csesar)  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
upper  picture.  Beside  this  ran  the  ''  Via  Sacra,"  the 
Sacred  Way,  which  began  at  the  golden  milestone  from 
which  all  distances  were  reckoned  on  the  famous  Roman 
roads.  Directly  in  front  of  us  formerly  stood  the  famous 
platform,  marked  by  shafts  in  the  lower  view,  and  deco- 
rated with  the  beaks  of  captured  galleys.  This  platform 
was  called,  from  the  Roman  word  "  beaks,"  the  rostra, 
thus  we  get  the  word  rostrum.  To  the  right  of  this 
platform,  beyond  the  later  triumphal  arch  of  Septimius 

1  Besides  the  Forum  were  forums  of  the  Caesars  and  of  later  emperors, 
usually  constructed  to  the  north  of  the  Forum  of  the  republic,  that  is, 
at  the  right  of  our  views  of  the  Forum. 

2  The  Forum  was  drained  after  the  founding  of  the  republic  by  the 
famous  "Cloaca  Maxima."  Tradition,  however,  assigns  the  building 
of  this  great  sewer  to  the  time  of  the  Etruscan  kings. 

279 


280 


ROME 


Arches, 
circuses, 
amphi- 
theatres 
and  other 
buildings. 


Severus,  was  the  senate  house.  The  heights  in  the  back- 
ground were  crowned  by  the  temples  of  .Jupiter  and  Juno. 
361.  Imperial  Rome  —  Pubhc  Buildings.  —  If  we  were 
to  turn  around,  we  should  see,  near  at  hand,  the  arch  of 
Titus,  and,  farther  away,  the  Colosseum  and  the  arch  of 
Constantine.  All  of  these  were  erected  by  emperors  later 
than  Augustus.     Beyond  the  Palatine  hill,  between  that 


i  •   '— 

.     ■■■■   V^"^ 

'mWi 

mS"' 

ri    i7vl!S 

The  Forum   To-day. 


The  Forum,  Restored. 


liy  (Jatlcschx 


1.  Capitolinc  Hill. 

2.  Temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus 

3.  Roman  Forum. 

4.  Palatine  Hill. 

5.  Palaces  of  the  Emperors. 

6.  Circus  Maximus. 

7.  Baths  of  Caracalla. 

8.  Claudian  Aqueduct. 

9.  Temple  of  Claudius. 

10.  Baths  of  Trajan. 

11.  Colosseum. 

12.  Forum  of  Peace. 


GENERAL   VIEW    OF    IMPERIAL    R< 


13.  Forum  of  AuRUstus. 

14.  Fonini  of  CiP.sar. 

15.  Forum  of  Trajan. 

1().  Baths  of  Constantiuc. 

17.  Temple  of  the  Sun. 

18.  Mausoleum  of  Augustus. 

19.  Mausoleum  of  Hadrian. 

20.  Stadium. 

21.  Pantheon. 

22.  Odeon. 

23.  Theatres. 

24.  Circus  of  Fhiminius. 


E,    RESTORED  (Time  of  Constantine). 


ROME   AND   THE   EMPIRE 


281 


and  the  Aventine  hill,  was  the  Circus  Maximus,  the  largest 
and  most  famous  of  the  circuses  in  the  empire.  If  we  were 
to  ascend  Capitoline  hill,  we  could  look  out  across  the 
Campus  Martins,  on  which  stood  the  fine  Pantheon,  built 


The  Colosseum,  Present  Condition. 


for  all  gods,  and  many  attractive  theatres,  porticos  and 
baths.  Across  the  river  in  this  direction  the  emperor 
Hadrian  erected  a  beautiful  mausoleum,  which  still  stands 
and  is  called  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo.  Beyond  this,  where 
to-day  we  find  St.  Peter's  church  and  the  pope's  residence, 
the  Vatican,  was  one  of  the  many  circuses  of  Rome. 

362.  Public    Welfare    Work   in   Rome.  —  Long   before   Lack  of 
the  days  of  the  republic,  it  had  been  necessary  to  drain  !|].op^r^°^' 
the  marshes  between  the  principal  hills,  in  order  to  have  building 
land  for  business  and  'houses,  as  the  city  grew.     Even  in  ffj^  p^otec- 
the  time  of  the  empire,  however,  the  public  sanitation  tion. 
was  imperfect  and  there  was  almost  no  attempt  at  street 
cleaning  or  collection  of  garbage.     There  were  regulations 


282 


ROME 


in  regard  to  the  height  of  buildings,  but  the  streets  were 
narrow  and  vacant  land  in  building  districts  was  more 
uncommon  than  in  lower  New  York  to-day.  Fires  were 
frequent  and  there  was  no  fire  department  except  the  guard- 
ians of  the  peace,  who  used  buckets  and  other  primitive  fire 


The  Pantheon. 


Aqueducts 
and  foun- 
tains gave 
free  water. 


apparatus.^  Building  regulations  must  have  been  poor  or 
carelessly  enforced,  for  many  buildings  fell  down  each  year. 
There  had  been  aqueducts  before  Augustus,  but  the  new 
aqueducts  constructed  under  that  emperor  and  Claudius 
greatly  improved  the  supply  of  water.  Public  fountains 
were  placed  in  all  of  the  numerous  plazas.  From  these 
water  was  supplied  free  to  all. 

'  Crassus,  the  triumvir  (§  .346),  made  a  large  part  of  hi.s  money  by 
buying  up  house.s  that  were  on  fire,  or  were  near  those  on  fire.  His  own 
followers  then  aided  in  extinguishing  the  flames. 


ROME   AND   THE   EMPIRE 


283 


In  spite  of  several  thousand  guardians  of  the  peace, 
Rome  was  disorderly  as  well  as  dirty.  Life  was  not 
always  safe  in  daylight,  and  it  was  not  wise  for  a  Roman 
to  go  about  without  attendants  at  night. 

363.  Cities  of  the  Empire.  —  The  early  Roman  empire 
was  largely  an  empire  of  cities,  especially  in  the  East. 
The  older  cities  did  not  imitate  Rome  very  closely,  but 
were  frequently  more  distinguished  as  centres  of  commerce 
and  culture  than  Rome.  In  every  city  of  importance 
there  were  fine  public  buildings  and  arches  and  statues, 
as  there  were  in  Rome,  sometimes  erected  at  public  expense 
and  sometimes  donated  by  rich  provincials.     In  the  West 


Lack  of 
proper 
police 
protection. 


The  cities 
of  the  em- 
pire were 
often  little 
Romes, 
with  some 
self-gov- 
ernment 
at  first. 


Ruins  of  the  Gymnasium  of  Hadrian,  Athens. 


there  were  fora,  circuses  and  theatres,  as  in  Rome.  Most 
cities  had  assemblies,  local  senates  and  magistrates,  chosen 
by  themselves,  with  the  consent  of  Rome.  These  munici- 
palities taxed  themselves,  paying  to  the  Roman  represent- 
atives the  amount  to  be  set  aside  for  the  imperial  treasury. 


284 


ROME 


jiTfV 

(^ 

L  -        ,             J 

liKr^:^'^r: 

■  ■»L, 

R<niuin  Bri(l<r('  and  Aciuoduct.     (Pont  du  Gard,  South  oi  Fninco.) 


Roman  Theatre,  Orauge,  France. 


ROME   AND   THE   EMPIRE 


285 


364.  Provinces  of  the  Empire.  —  Within  the  boundaries  Extent  of 
favored  by  Caesar,  established  by  Augustus,  and  retained  ^  empire, 
by  most  of  the  later  emperors,  that  is  from  the  Euphrates 
River  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  from  the  Sahara  Desert 
to  the  Rhine  and  Danube  rivers,  there  were  numerous 
provinces,  besides  Italy  and  Egypt.  Italy  was  at  first 
a  country  more  important  than  the  provinces,  although 
later  it  too  was  divided  into  provinces,  when  the  cities 
began  to  decline  and  the  older  large  provinces  were  found 
to  be  too  large  for  satisfactory  government.  Egypt  was 
the  personal  property  of  the  emperor. 

To  each  of  these  provinces  the  emperor  or  the  senate  Deputies 
(§  355)  sent  out  governors,  or  deputy  governors.  These  ^°  ^^^^  ^' 
men  and  their  numerous  assistants  looked  after  the  preser- 
vation of  order  and  the  administration  of  justice.  Agents 
of  Rome  supervised  the  collection  of  the  taxes,  especially 
in  those  districts  that  did  not  have  the  right  to  levy  their 
own  direct  tax. 

Classes  in  the  Roman  World 


365.  The  Upper  Classes,  the   Senators. — There  were  The  "sena- 


two  upper  classes  in  Rome,  the  senators  and  the  knights. 
The  ''  senators  "  included  not  only  those  who  sat  in  the 
senate,  together  with  their  wives  and  descendants,  but 
all  those  fortunate  persons  on  whom  the  emperor  con- 
ferred senatorial  rank.  A  man  was  less  anxious  to  be- 
come a  ^'  senator  "  because  of  the  power  that  he  could 
have  as  an  official  of  the  government  than  for  the  social 
prestige  that  he  gained.  Choice  seats  were  reserved  for 
senators  in  the  theatres  and  at  all  games.  Senators  alone 
had  the  right  to  wear  a  broad  purple  stripe  down  the  front 
of  their  cloaks,  or  togas,  and  they  were  permitted  the  use 
of  the  title  ''  most  honorable."  By  custom  senators 
were  not  allowed  to  engage  in  business,  except  through 


tors  "  as  a 
social  class. 


286 


ROME 


The  knights, 
a  capitahst 
and  social 
class. 


Three 

middle 

classes. 


The  priv- 
ileges and 
disabilities 
of  the 
moderately 
wealthy 
provincials. 


The  decline 
of  the 
middle 
class. 


clients,  so  that   the  senatorial   class  became   a   kind   of 
landed  aristocracy,  in  Italy  and  in  the  provinces. 

366.  The  Knights.  —  The  other  wealthy  class  of  Rome 
and  of  other  important  cities  was  the  capitalist  class  of 
knights.  These  men  had  a  social  position  a  little  lower 
than  that  of  the  senators.  On  the  front  of  their  togas 
were  two  narrow  purple  stripes.  They  were  the  bankers 
and  the  men  that  handled  all  of  the  '^  big  business  "  of 
the  Roman  world.  They  were  frequently  selected  for 
positions  of  importance  under  the  empire,  because  of  their 
business  ability  and  experience. 

367.  The  Middle  Class.  —  The  middle  class  might  be 
said  to  include  (1)  all  of  the  professional  people  and  small 
tradesmen  of  Rome  and  the  other  large  cities,  (2)  the  well- 
to-do  city-dwellers,  or  the  smaller  landed  proprietors  liv- 
ing near  the  cities,  of  the  provinces ;  and  (3)  the  indepen- 
dent small  farmers  of  the  country  districts. 

Most  of  the  honors  that  came  to  this  class  came  to  the 
moderately  wealthy  citizens  of  the  provincial  ''  mu-ni- 
cip'i-a."  These  men  were  allowed  to  hold  the  local 
offices  and  sit  in  the  local  senate.  They  were  obliged  to 
guarantee  the  payment  of  taxes  from  their  city  to  the  im- 
perial treasury.  As  the  cities  declined,  there  was  less 
honor  in  the  holding  of  municipal  offices,  and,  as  wealth 
became  scarcer,  the  burdens  of  taxation  bankrupted  a 
great  many  of  these  small  landed  proprietors. 

368.  Decline  of  the  Middle  Class.  —  In  fact,  in  time 
all  of  the  middle  classes  dechned,  the  richer  members 
gaining  for  themselves  positions  in  the  upper  classes,  and 
the  poorer  members  dropping  back  into  the  lower  classes. 
Before  the  second  Punic  war,  most  of  the  people  of  Italy 
had  belonged  to  a  middle  class  of  small  farmers.  In  the 
late  repu})lic  the  middle  class  declined  rapidly,  and  in  the 
later  empire  it  almost  disappeared  (§  408). 

369.  The    Lower    Classes    of    Citizens.  —  The    lower 


CLASSES  IN   THE   ROMAN  WORLD 


287 


classes  of  citizens  included  the  majority  of  all  Romans  and 
dependents,  not  including  slaves.  The  freedmen  were 
the  most  valuable  of  these  citizens  of  the  lower  order,  for 
they  had  usually  been  trained  to  habits  of  industry 
and  thrift.  The  freedmen  were  also  anxious  that  their 
children  should  occupy  positions  of  honor.  The  sons  and 
grandsons  of  freedmen  often  became  not  simply  members 
of  the  middle  class,  but  knights  or  senators. 

The  freedmen  were  fewer  in  number  than  the  clients, 
attendants  and  general  rabble  of  every  city  of  the  empire. 
Free  food  was  furnished  to  many  of  those  that  waited  in 
the  anteroom  of  the  lord's  house  to  serve  him,  or  attended 
him  through  the  streets,  for  every  noble  desired  a  large 
''  following."  More  than  200,000  citizens  of  Rome  alone 
received  about  a  bushel  of  wheat  a  month  from  the  state. 
Of  this  class  in  general,  it  has  been  said  that  they  existed 
for  "  bread  and  games."  To  be  fed  and  amused  at  public 
expense  seemed  to  them  sufficient  reason  for  existence. 

370.  Free  Workers.  —  Most  of  the  free  inhabitants 
of  the  lower  classes  were  employed,  except  on  holidays. 
Their  work  was  done  either  in  their  own  homes  or  shops, 
or  in  the  home  of  their  patron  or  employer.  There  were 
no  large  factories  such  as  we  have  to-day,  for  there  was 
no  machinery  worthy  of  the  name.  Because  their  tools 
were  poor,  the  workers  did  not  accomplish  a  great  deal, 
and  because  they  were  obliged  to  compete  with  slaves, 
they  never  obtained  more  than  a  living  wage,  or  a  better 
social  position.  The  Romans  did  not  make  any  distinc- 
tion between  an  artist  and  a  house-painter,  between  a 
sculptor  and  a  stone  cutter,  between  a  master  mechanic 
and  any  other  metal  worker.  All  of  them  were  humble 
wage-earners,  who  were  despised.  On  the  farms  the  agri- 
cultural laborer  was  almost  worse  off  than  the  city  artisan, 
for  there  was  greater  competition  with  slave  labor. 

From  a  very  early  date  the  workers  who  did  the  same 


Importance 
of  the 
freedmen. 


The  clients 
and  the 
rabble. 


Poor  social 
and  eco- 
nomic posi- 
tion of 
artisans. 


288 


ROME 


Tho  Roniaii 
gilds. 


How  the 
supply  of 
slaves 
was  re- 
I)lenished. 


Distinction 
between 
the  city 
slave  and 
the  uncul- 
tured farm 
slav«^ 


Harsh  or 
cruel    treat- 
ment of 
slaves. 


thing  were  united  in  associations,  or  g}](U.  Tlioso  were 
religious  and  social  organizations  that  did  not  take  any 
active  })art  in  i)oHtics,  and  did  not  use  tlie  strike  or  any 
other  means  to  improve  their  condition,  l^rohably  their 
low  social  position  and  their  low  wages  were  due  to  com- 
petition with  slaves. 

371.  Slaves.  —  A  fair  proportion  of  the  population 
throughout  the  empire  and  a  majority  in  Sicil}-,  southern 
Italy  and  a  few  other  localities,  were  slaves.  Slaves  were 
acquired  at  first  through  conquest.  Later  onlj^  a  small 
part  of  the  supply  of  slaves  came  from  the  frontier.  Men 
who  fell  deeply  into  debt  sometimes  sold  their  children. 
Kidnappers  were  constantly  at  work  in  the  cities  and 
sometimes  along  the  highways  and  the  high  seas,  and  a 
business  was  made  of  rearing  children  who  had  been 
"  exposed  "  by  their  parents.  Nevertheless  the  price 
of  slaves  rose  during  the  empire,  because  the  suj^j^ly  fell 
far  short  of  the  demand. 

Slaves  did  a  large  part  of  the  work  in  the  empire,  since 
manual  work  was  dc^spised,  and  workers  were  treated  as 

menials.  A  sharp  distinction  was 
drawn  between  the  city  slave,  fre- 
([uently  an  educated  or  cultured 
Greek  or  Syrian,  and  a  farm-hand 
who  was  necessarily  strong  and 
usually  brutal.  In  the  cities  slaves 
were  sometimes  tutors  and  secre- 
taries, managers  of  large  businesses, 
or  skilled  artists. 

372.  Treatment  of  Slaves.  —  As 
slaves  on  the  large  estates  were 
treated  very  harshly  by  overseers, 
they  often  rebelled  in  terri])le  slave 
insurrections.  Slaves  were  usually  kept  chained,  and  at 
night   were  locked  in  the  prison  house,  where  refractory 


Slave  in  Fetter.**. 


CLASSES  IN  THE   ROMAN  WORLD 


289 


slaves  were  also  punished  cruelly.  City  slaves  werc^ 
treated  better,  although  a  slave's  life  was  not  respected 
by  his  master  until  the  later  empire,  and  a  Roman  matron 
punished  her  slaves  severely,  if  she  happened  to  be  irri- 
tated. Slaves  were  allowed  to  earn  extra  money  and  buy 
their  freedom.  Masters  frequently  freed  slaves  in  order 
to  have  a  large  following  of  freedmen  clients. 

373.  The  Position  of  Women.  —  Women  had  always 
been  freer  in  Rome  than  in  Greece  (§  228).  Even  when 
the  Roman  matron  was  legally  under  the  absolute  rule 
of  the  '^  pater  familias,"  she  had  a  position  of  dignity  and 
honor.  Gradually  the  authority  of  the  father  over  his 
wife  and  children  was  reduced  legally,  and,  to  a  much 
greater  extent,  actually.  In  marrying,  women  usually 
remained  under  the  power  of  their  fathers  instead  of  com- 
ing under  that  of  their  husbands. 

Under  the  late  republic,  women  lived  practically  sepa- 
rate lives  from  men.  The  Roman  family  no  longer  was 
important  among  the  upper  classes.  One  satirist  said  that 
women  counted  their  ages  less  by  the  number  of  years 
than  by  the  number  of  their  husbands.  Divorce  occurred 
with  scandalous  frequency.  As  one  non-American  writer 
naively  expresses  it,  '^  Nothing  like  it  has  been  seen  until 
modern  America."  The  custom  of  adopting  sons  to  carry 
on  the  family  name  and  to  continue  the  veneration  due 
to  ancestors  was  almost  universal  among  the  upper 
classes,  for  most  of  the  nobles  had  no  sons  of  their 
own. 

Among  the  middle  and  lower  classes  women  were  prob- 
ably deserving  of  more  respect.  Although  there  was  a 
great  deal  of  loose  living  among  the  people  in  the  late 
republic  and  the  early  empire,  most  writers  exaggerate 
the  immorality  prevailing  among  the  later  Romans. 

374.  Children  and  Education.  —  When  a  Roman  child 
was  born,  it  was  brought  before  its  father.     If  he  wished 

u 


Gradual 
"emancipa- 
tion" of 
women. 


Marriage 

and   divorce 
among  tlie 
upper 
classes. 


Women  of 
the  middle 
and  lower 
classes. 


290 


ROME 


Roman 
boys  and 
girls. 


Home 
training 
and  sfhool 
instruction. 


to  ])riiig  it  up,  he  lifted  the  child  from  the  floor.  Soon 
after  a  charm  was  hung  from  a  cord  about  its  neck.  The 
boys  wore  these  charms  until  they  put  on  the  toga  of  a 
man,  at  the  age  of  1().     The  girls  wore  theirs  until  they 

were  married. 

The  girls  were  trained  at 
home  to  spin,  weave,  sew  and 
look  after  simple  tasks.  The 
boys  imitated  their  fathers. 
They  w^ere  trained  by  slaves, 
and,  as  they  grew  older,  were 
sent  to  school.  No  modern 
schoolboy  hates  his  school 
as  much  as  the  Roman  boys 
did  theirs.  The  masters 
were  usually  coarse  and  fre- 
quently uneducated.  A  little 
reading  and  writing  were 
taught,  the  master  reading 
aloud  from  a  })ook  that  was  unwound  from  one  stick  and 
wound  on  another,  somewhat  like  a  roll  of  music  for  a 
player  piano.  Arithmetic  was  studied  on  an  ''ab'a-cus"  or 
counting  board.  When  the  boy  forgot  his  lines  or  did 
his  work  poorly,  he  was  forcibly  reminded  of  his  failure. 


Horsing  a  Boy. 


The  con- 
ventional 
city  house 
with  hall 
and  peri- 
style. 


Life  of  the  People 

375.  Roman  Houses.  —  The  middle  classes  did  not  often 
own  separate  houses  unless  they  were  small  farmers.  Each 
family  in  the  wealthier  classes,  on  the  contrary,  always 
owned  a  city  house  and  one  or  more  country  villas.  The 
conventional  form  of  the  city  house  is  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying diagram.  One  (^ntered  by  a  door  that  opened 
outward  on  the  street.  In  going  out  a  person  called  aloud 
so  that  the  passer-by  should  move  away  from  the  door,  as 


LIFE   OF   THE    PEOPLE 


291 


the  streets  were  exceedingly  narrow.  Inside,  the  entrance 
passage  led  to  a  large  open  hall,  perhaps  with  a  fountain 
in  the  centre.  Farther  back  was  another  large  room 
surrounded  with  columns  after  the  Greek  fashion.  This 
was  called  the  peristyle.  The  bedrooms  were  at  the  sides, 
sometimes  above.  Expen- 
sive draperies,  fine  couches 
and  handsomely  carved 
chests  and  bedsteads  were 
to  be  found,  but  the  houses 
contained  few  comforts. 
Running  water  was  used  in 
many  city  homes,  as  we 
know  from  the  excavations 
at  Pompeii. 

The  country  villas  were 
larger,  less  conventional  in 
arrangement  and  surrounded 
by  beautiful  gardens. 

376.  Roman  Tenements. 
—  Naturally  the  people  of 
the  mob  lived  in  mean 
quarters,  amid  dirt  and  filth. 
Many  of  those  in  the  large 
cities  lived  in  beehive  tene- 
ments called  *'insul2e,"  be- 
cause they  resembled  isl- 
ands, being  separated  from 
their  surroundings  on  all 
sides  by  alleys.  These  tenements  were  several  stories  in 
height  and  were  built  in  the  most  defective  manner. 
Fires  were  exceedingly  common  in  Rome  and  walls  were 
continually  giving  way.  Much  of  the  wheat  was  ex- 
changed at  the  baker's  for  })read  but  a  great  deal  of  the 
cooking  was  done  at  home.     Pure  water  could  be  obtained 


Typical  Scheme  of  a  Roman  House. 


Country 
villas. 


The  poorly 
built  "in- 
sulse"  and 
the  needs 
of  life. 


292 


ROME 


House  P'uriuture. 


Fcrifet^ie  in  House  of  the  \'ettii. 


LIFE   OF  THE    PEOPLE 


293 


citizen. 


Dress  of 
the  women. 


free  at  the  public  fountains  and  wine  could  be  purchased 
at  a  price  less  than  twenty-five  cents  a  gallon  in  our 
money. 

377.  Roman  Dress.  —  The  Roman  men  wore  few  clothes.  Tunic  and 
It  was  unusual  to  wear  hose  or  shirts.  There  was  a  woolen,  -^^^^^ 
or  possibly  a  linen, 
tunic,  or  loose 
shirt  or  coat,  over 
which  was  folded 
the  large  white 
woolen  robe  called 
the  "  toga  "  which 
only  a  Roman 
citizen  might 
wedr. 

The  dress  of 
women  was  not 
radically  different 
from  that  of  the 
men,  for  the  ladies 
also  wore  one  or 
more  long  tunics 
and  used  a  robe 
which  was  essen- 
tially a  feminine 
toga.  Naturally 
the  women  used 
much  finer  ma- 
terials, more  elab- 
orate patterns 
and  many  more 
ornaments.    They 

dressed  their  hair  elaborately,  but  wore  no  hats.  Sandals 
were  used  at  home,  and  in  public  a  kind  of  boot  fastened 
with  straps. 


Toga. 


294 


ROMK 


Iinporlaiic 
of  the 
baths  and 
games. 


Holidays, 
festivals 
and  public 
games. 


378.  Diversions:  The  Baths.  -  The  Roman  spent  a 
large  part  of  his  time  at  the  batlis,  which  were  large  and 
magnificent  club  houses.     Here  he  met  his  friends,  talked 

politics  or  possibly 
business,  considered 
the  latest  gossip  and 
discussed  the  com- 
ing chariot  races.  In 
the  later  days  of  the 
empire  the  baths  were 
thrown  open  free,  or 
at  a  nominal  charge, 
to  all  citizens.  These 
public  baths  were  of 
course  more  like 
^'  people's  palaces  " 
than  exclusive  club- 
houses. When  the 
aristocrat  was  not  at 
the  bath,  or  entertain- 
ing at  home,  he  might 
be  found  in  his  re- 
served seat  at  the 
circus,  or  the  amphi- 
theatre, or  even  at 
the  theatre. 

379.  The  Theatre.  —  As  about  one  day  in  four  was  a 
holiday  on  which  games  or  festivals  were  given,  the 
populace  of  Rome  never  lacked  for  amusement.  One 
of  the  most  extended  of  the  festivals  was  that  of  Saturn, 
the  ''  Sat-ur-na'H-a,"  the  third  week  of  December.  For 
several  days  there  was  merrymaking,  the  servants  being 
allowed  special  liberties.  Presents  were  exchanged  at 
this  time  and  again  on  New  Year's  day.  Most  of  the 
expense  of  the  holiday  games  in  the  amphitheatre  or  circus 


]-5atlis  of  (Jaracalla,  Exterior. 


LIFE   OF  THE   PEOPLE 


295 


was  paid  from  the  imperial  treasury,  but  the  officials  who 
had  charge  of  the  games  were  expected  to  use  large  amounts 
from  their  own  purses  in  addition.  Lavish  expenditures 
for  the  amusement  of  the  mob  meant  popularity,  and,  in 
the  late  republic,  it  meant  votes  and  popular  support. 

The  theatre  was  devoted  to  the  drama.  The  building 
was  somewhat  Uke  that  of  the  Greek  theatre  and  the  plays 
were  often  copied  after  the  new  Greek  comedy  of  Alex- 
andria (§  245).  Although  the  plays  were  coarse,  they 
failed  to  appeal  strongly  to  the  Roman,  who  preferred 
bloody  combats  in  the  arena  to  any  entertainment  that 
was  even  remotely  literary.  Some  of  the  theatres  are  said 
to  have  held  from  30,000  to  40,000.  Even  allowing  for 
the  inevitable  exaggeration,  some  plays  must  have  been 
given  before  large  audiences. 

380.  The  Amphitheatre.  —  The  amphitheatre  or  double 
theatre,  of  which  the  Colosseum  is  the  best  example,  fur- 
nished a  much  more  popular  form  of  amusement.     Here 


Compara- 
tive lack 
of  Roman 
interest  in 
plays. 


Brutal  com- 
bats of 
the  double 
theatre.  . 


Colosseum  Restored. 


296 


KO.ME 


Method 
and 

weapons  in 
the  gladi- 
atorial 
combats. 


Wild  ani- 
mal con- 
tests. 


the  gladiatorial  fights  occurred,  or  fierce  animals  were 
hunted,  or  wild  beasts  fought  with  each  other  or  with 
unarmed  men.  Here  was  sport  that  appealed  to  a  love 
of  bloodshed  and  brutality. 

The  gladiators  were  usually  trained  athletes  who  fought 
with  the  weapons  of  their  country,  singly  or  in  bands.  If 
a  man  fought  with,  especial  skill,  he  might  be  saved  for 
another  combat,  even  if  he  lost ;  but  usually  the  man  that 
was  overpowered  looked  in  vain  for  mercy,  since  the 
spectators  usually  turned  down  their  thumbs,  a  signal  that 
he  was  to  die. 

In  the  arena  the  struggles  of  half -famished  lions  and 
tigers  and  other  fierce  animals  furnished  ample  excitement, 
whether  they  tore  at  each  other,  or  tried  to  get  at  an  armed 
man  by  whom  they  had  been  wounded. 


C'ircns  Maxirnu.s,  Restf)red. 


381.  The  Circus.  —  Chariot  racing  usually  took  place 
in  the  Circus  IMaxinius,  near  the  ])a]a('es  of  the  Caesars. 
This  circus  was  enlarged  several  times,  so  that  it  held  more 


ROMANIZATION  OF  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD     297 


racing 
around  the 
course  of 
the  Circus 
Maximus. 


than  300,000  persons.  The  race  course  was  long  and  nar-  Chariot 
row,  the  chariots  being  driven  seven  times  around  the 
partition  that  extended  lengthwise  along  the  course. 
Usually  there  were  two  or  four  horses  for  a  chariot  and  the 
chariots  were  driven  by  professionals,  hired  by  parties 
represented  by  the  blue,  the  green,  the  white  or  the  red. 
At  a  given  signal  the  doors  of  the  stalls  were  thrown 
open  and  the  chariots  rushed  forward  to  get  the  best 
position  at  the  starting  line.  Mishaps  were  frequent  at 
the  start  and  at  the  turns. 


ROMANIZATION    OF   THE    MEDITERRANEAN    WORLD 

382.  The  ''  Pax  Romana."  —  When,  in  29  B.C.,  Octavius  Peace  and 
entered  Rome  in  triumph,  the  gates  of  the  Temple  of  prosperity 
Janus,  which  were  open  in  time  of  war,  were  closed  for  the  centuries, 
third  time  in  the  history  of  the  Roman  people.     For  more 

than  two  centuries  after  Augustus  established  the  empire 
peace  reigned  throughout  the  Mediterranean  world,  where 
peace  had  been  almost  unknown  before.  Under  the  "  pax 
Ro-ma'na,"  travellers  went  about  in  comparative  security, 
merchants  took  long  trips,  a  primitive  postal  service  was 
established  and  business  of  all  kinds  prospered.  The 
''  pax  Romana "  meant  prosperity  as  well  as  peace. 
After  two  centuries,  however,  the  barbarians  began  to 
press  harder  on  the  borders  and  the  imperial  government 
was  unable  to  keep  the  towns  and  the  provinces  from  dis- 
order. In  242  A.D.  the  gates  of  the  temple  of  Janus  were 
opened  for  the  last  time.^ 

383.  Roman  Roads.  —  Before  Roman  times,  the  sea 
had  furnished  the  only  comparatively  safe  and  easy  high- 
ways. For  military  reasons,  Rome  had  begun  to  build, 
before  the  Punic  wars,  the  first   of   her   famous  Roman 

1  The  "fall  of  Rome"  did  not  occur  until  476  a.u..  hut  Roman  roliKions 
were  suppressed  many  years  before  that  time. 


298 


ROME 


Great  ex- 
tent and 
value  to 
war  and 
commerce 
of  the 
Roman 
roads. 


Commerce 
by  sea 
between 
the  great 
cities. 


military  roads,  the  Appian  Way.  In  time  these  fine  high- 
ways extended  to  every  part  of  the  empire,  as  is  shown  by 
the  accompanying  map.  In  Gaul  alone  there  were  more 
than  13,000  miles  of  Roman  roads.  They  were  paved  with 
large  stone  blocks  laid  on  a  foundation  more  than  two 
feet  deep.  They  were  so  well  made  that  some  of  them  are 
in  use  to-day.     Soldiers  used  them  in  marching  to  the 


1 

c*''^^3^»      ^H  'fill 

•'*^-    •.til 

^SpdR^*l||^^^ 

- 

'  ""'          ■* 

i'^' 

"-^^i 

^5 

Sf'T' 

•   - 

Appian  Way,  with  Ruins  of  CUaudiau  Aqiicduit. 

front.  The  post  riders  followed  them.  Merchants  ^vith 
pack-animals  could  be  found  everywhere  on  the  roads. 
They  were  safe  and  convenient  for  foot  travellers  and  horse- 
men, but  they  were  less  comfortable  for  chariots  or 
carriages,  being  almost  as  rough  as  a  cobble-stone  pave- 
ment. 

384.  Roman  Commerce.  —  Over  these  roads,  but  chiefly 
by  sea,  the  great  cities  of  the  Roman  empire  exchanged 
goods.  Alexandria  and  Antioch  had  extensive  trade  with 
the  East.     The  Greek  cities  served  as  markets  for  the 


ROMANIZATION  OF  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD     299 

products  of  the  J^]gean  and  Black  Sea  basins.  Carthage 
in  Africa,  now  rebuilt,  Marseilles  in  Gaul,  and  other 
ports  enjoyed  a  large  trade  with  the  interior  of  their 
respective  provinces.  To  Rome  came  much  of  the 
tribute  from  subject  cities  and  great  quantities  of  food. 
In  Rome  the  question  of  food  supply  was  always  inter- 
esting and  difficult.  Overcrowded  as  she  was,  Rome 
absorbed  much  from  her  neighbors  giving  in  return  little 


IMPORTANT 

ROMAN  ROADS 


Roads 

LLUMS  EnG     CO..  r«tw 


Roman  Roads. 

besides  those  products  of  her  civilization  —  order  and  the 
administration  of  law. 

While  this  commerce  was  not  large,  it  brought  all  parts  Some  im- 
of  the  empire  closer  together  and  created  bonds  that  made  r^surts^of 
easier  the  adoption  of  a  common  citizenship,  two  languages  Roman 
and  civilizations,  the  Greek  in  the  East  and  the  Latin  in  "'^^*^" 
the  West,  and  a  single  system  of  law. 

385.   The    Extension    of    Roman    Citizenship.  —  When 
Rome  made  her  conquests  in  Italy,  she  depended  not  only 


300 


ROME 


Romp's 
policN'  of 
special 
privileges, 
with  special 
disabilities 
to  allies 
and  others. 


Extension 
of  citizen- 
ship to 
Italians 
and  pro- 
vincials. 


Need  of 
a  common 
language. 


on  her  own  citizens  who  wore/////  Roman  citizens,  hut  on 
her  colonists  and  near-by  alHes,  who  liad  most  of  the  rights 
of  citizenship,  called  the  Latin  right,  and  on  dependent 
allies  who  had  the  rights  of  Italians.  When  Rome  con- 
quered a  city  or  a  people,  she  left  to  them  most  of  their 
local  laws,  customs  and  self-government,  granting  to  them 
certain  special  privileges,  and  not  allowing  them  to  trade 
with  each  other  or  look  after  their  external  affairs.  By 
this  policy  of  "  divide  and  rule  "  Rome  kept  the  subject 
cities  from  revolting,  since  they  feared  to  lose  their  special 
privileges,  while  their  different  dialects  kept  them  from 
uniting  against  Rome. 

These  Italians  greatly  desired  citizenship,  not  so  much 
that  they  might  be  able  to  go  to  Rome  and  vote,  or  even 
to  trade  more  freely,  but  to  protect  themselves  in  their 
homes  and  on  the  streets  and  highways,  since  there  was 
no  real  security  for  any  but  Roman  citizens.  As  a  result 
of  the  Social  War  (89  B.C.)  (§  341),  we  noticed  that  grad- 
ually all  Italians  gained  Roman  citizenship.  A  generation 
later  Julius  Coesar  gave  citizenship  to  many  Gauls  and 
other  provincials.  Among  the  early  emperors,  Claudius 
was  conspicuous  for  his  grants  of  citizenship  to  individuals, 
towns  and  larger  districts.  Finally  in  212  a.d.  the  emperor 
Car-a-cal'la,  in  order  to  be  able  to  levy  on  every  one  an  inher- 
itance tax  which  only  citizens  need  pay,  included  almost  all 
freemen  as  citizens.  Thus  in  less  than  two  centuries  after 
the  death  of  Augustus  there  was  developed  in  Rome  the 
idea  that  citizenship  should  be  universal.  This  change 
completed  the  development,  from  the  old  city-state  idea, 
by  Athens  and  Rome,  of  the  modern  idea  of  citizenship. 

386.  The  Extension  of  the  Latin  Language.  —  The 
extension  of  the  Latin  language  in  a  sense  accompanied  the 
extension  of  citizenship,  for  all  citizens  wished  to  be  able 
to  speak  Latin.  At  first  Latin  had  been  only  the  leading 
dialect  in   Latium.     When   all   Italians   became   Roman 


ROMANIZATION   OF  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD     301 

citizens,  naturally  they  could  communicate  with  neighbor- 
ing towns  more  easily  by  using  a  common  language  — 
Latin.  If  an  Italian  or  a  provincial  went  to  Rome,  he 
almost  of  necessity  used  Latin. 

The  groups  of  merchants  that  went  from  city  to  city  Spread  of 
outside   of   Italy   carried   with   them   the   Latin  tongue.   L^t,\^  t>y 

.         soldiers, 

Garrisons  of  soldiers  stationed  in  the  provinces,  or  colonies   merchants 
established  at  different  points,   became   centres  for  the  ^V^,  ^°^°" 

^  '  .  ,  rusts. 

spread  of  the  language  of  Rome — Latin.  This  was  not  the 
book-Latin  of  the  best  orators,  but  a  colloquial  language, 
the  speech  of  the  streets  and  the  barracks. 

Latin  first  gained  a  foothold  in  those  provinces  which.   Develop- 
like  Spain,  had  no  well-developed  language  of  their  own.   ™^^*  ^^ 
It  took  root  finally  in  all  western  Europe,  and  from  it   Roman  or 
sprang  a  number  of  Roman  or  Romance  lanquaqes,  chiefly  ]^o™^^ce 

.  i}       ij      T  J     languages 

the  Italian,  the  French,  the  Spanish  and  the  Portuguese,  in  western 
Garrisons  and  colonists  in  Dacia  made  that  province  ^^^°p^- 
largely  Roman,  the  Rou-ma'ni-a  of  our  day.  Elsewhere 
in  the  East,  Greek  rather  than  Latin  was'  the  universal 
tongue  and  the  official  language,  for  Greek  was  already 
in  use  everywhere  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean  and  was 
a  finer  language  than  the  cruder  Latin. 

387.  The  Development  of  Roman  Law.  —  In  the  law  The  law  of 
of  the  Twelve  Tables,  the  city  of  Rome  had  a  crude  and   !^^,'^^^   , 

'^  tables  aiid 

formal  set  of  laws.     These  were  applied  and  explained  by  the  edicts 
judges,    called    prse'tors.     Every    year   the   new  praetors  ^^  *5^^ 

.  .  ^      ^  I  prsetors. 

issued  edicts  stating  the  law  that  would  be  used  by  them 
during  the  year.  These  prcetor's  edicts  rather  than  the 
Twelve  Tables  became  the  law  of  Rome. 

As  Rome  extended  her  conquests,  she  was  obliged  to   Develop- 
decide  manv  cases  between  Romans  and  foreigners,  or  "^^^*  °^,, 

*  .  o  7  equity,  the 

between  two  foreigners  from  different  cities.     In  doing  law  of  the 
this  the  praetors  who   took  charge  of   such   cases  relied   J^^^^^p"^  ^^^^ 

.  ^  legal  codes. 

on  general  principles  of  justice  more  than  they  did  on  the 
law  of  the  cit.y  of  Rome.     As  the  Italians  and  afterward 


302 


ROME 


The  teach- 
ings of  the 
Stoics  and 
the  Chris- 
tians helped 
to  make 
the  laws 
better. 


The  sur- 
vival of 
Rome's 
law  in  later 
ages. 


provincials  were  admitted  to  citizenship,  it  seemed  best 
to  give  them  the  benefit  of  this  outside  law,  the  law  of 
the  natio?is.  After  a  time  the  emperors  gathered  all  of 
these  prae-tor'i-an  edicts  together  and  arranged  them  scien- 
tifically into  codes  of  laws. 

About  the  time  that  these  codes  were  made  for  the  whole 
Roman  world,  the  Stoics,  and,  later,  the  Christians,  were 
making  people  more  considerate  of  other  people  and  more 
lenient  in  the  punishment  of  criminals  and  in  the  treat- 
ment of  slaves.  So  these  codes  included  new  and  better 
means  for  protecting  the  rights  of  all  people,  and  espe- 
cially the  rights  of  those  that  could  not  easily  protect 
themselves. 

This  great  system  of  law  was  Rome's  great  contribution 
to  the  world.  The  invasion  of  the  Germans  in  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  did  not  destroy  it,  for  the  Germans 
accepted  as  much  of  the  Roman  law  as  they  could  under- 
stand. After  the  German  invasions,  Justinian,  the  ruler 
of  the  eastern  Roman  empire,  had  these  Roman  laws 
brought  together  into  a  new  and  more  perfect  code,  the 
code  of  Justinian,  which  is  still  the  basis  of  most  of  the 
law  systems  of  western  continental  Europe,  and  survives 
to-day  in  the  equity  law  of  England  and  the  United  States. 


General  References 

Webster,  Ancient  History,  386-391,  465-492,  562-600,  631-639. 
Da\4s,  Readings  in  Ancient  History,  II,  85-103,  211-284. 
Tucker,  Life  in  the  Roman  World  of  Nero  and  St.  Paul. 
Fowler,  Social  Life  at  Rome. 
Thomas,  Roman  Life  under  the  Casars. 
Preston  and  Dodge,  Private  Life  of  the  Romans. 
Johnston,  Private  Life  of  the  Romans. 

Ouhl  and  Konor,  Life  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  297-596. 
Dill,  Roman  Society  from  Nero  to  Marcus  Aurcliiis,  l(K)-286, 
Davis,  Influence  of  Wealth  in  Lmperial  Rome 
Dill,  Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Western  Empire^ 
143-281. 


ROMANIZATION  OF  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD     303 

Abbott,  The  Common  People  of  Ancient  Rome. 
Sandys  (ed.),  A  Companion  to  Roman  Studies. 
Lanciani,  Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Discoveries. 

Topics 

Municipalities  of  the  Roman  Empire  :  Webster,  Ancient 
History,  476-480  ;  Sandys  (ed.),  A  Companion  to  Roman  Studies, 
366-379 ;  Abbott,  The  Common  People  of  Ancient  Rome,  179- 
204;  Dill,  Rornan  Society  froin  Nero  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  196- 
250. 

The  Lower  Population  :  Tucker,  Life  in  the  Roman  World, 
238-259  ;  Davis,  Influence  of  Wealth  in  Imperial  Rome,  194-229  ; 
Fowler,  Social  Life  at  Rome,  24-59. 

Roman  Women  and  Marriage  :  Tucker,  Life  in  the  Roman 
World,  289-313 ;  Davis,  Influence  of  Wealth  in  Imperial  Rome, 
288-313 ;    Fowler,  Social  Life  at  Rojne,  135-167. 

The  Roman  House  :  Preston  and  Dodge,  Private  Life  of  the 
Romans,  28-43;  Johnston,  Private  Life  of  the  Romans,  117-157; 
Fowler,  Social  Life,  237-262 ;  Tucker,  Life  in  the  Roman  World, 
139-179. 

Extension  of  the  Latin  Language  :  Sandys  (ed.),  A  Com- 
panion to  Latin  Studies,  806-808,  821-827 ;  Munro  and  Sellery 
(eds.).  Medieval  Civilization,  3-17;  Abbott,  The  Common  People 
of  Ancient  Rome,  3-31. 

Studies 

1.  The  Roman  Forum.  Tucker,  Life  in  the  Roman  World, 
102-118. 

2.  The  great  buildings  of  Rome.  Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient 
History,  232-235. 

3.  The  water  supply  of  Rome.  Tucker,  Life  in  the  Roman 
World,  135-137. 

4.  Dangers  in  Rome.  Botsford,  Source  Book  of  Ancient  His- 
tory, 498-503. 

5.  Life  in  the  provinces.  '  Capes,  The  Early  Empire,  190-202. 

6.  The  decay  of  the  Roman  middle  class.  Dill,  Roman 
Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Republic,  266-281. 

7.  Life  in  the  upper  classes.  Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient  His- 
tory, II,  240-244. 

8.  The  Roman  gilds.  Davis,  Influence  of  Wealth  in  Imperial 
Rome,  229-237. 


304  •  ROME 

!).  Crops  raised  1».\  the  luuriaiis.  Pnstoii  unci  I)o<l}^c.  Private 
Life,  125-132. 

10.  Treatment    of    slaves,      .loliiistoii,    Prinilc    Lijr,    102    111. 

11.  A  great  banquet  of  a  rich  parvenu.  Davis,  Readings  in 
Ancient  History,  II,  253-259. 

12.  The  Roman  theatre.  Tucker,  Life  in  the  Roman  World, 
263-273. 

13.  The  amphitheatre.     Thomas, /?oma/i  Li/<',  109-110. 

14.  The  circus.     Tucker,  Life  in  the    Roman  World,  273-280. 

15.  Presents  of  the  Saturnalia.  Davis,  Influence  of  Wealth 
in  Imperial  Rome,  273-276. 

16.  Travel  by  land.     Tucker,  Life  in  the  Roman  World,  16-25. 

17.  Trade  with  the  East  through  Alexandria.  Davis,  Influ- 
ence of  Wealth  in  Imperial  Rome,  83-90. 

18.  Internal  industry  and  commerce.  Davis,  Influence  of 
Wealth,  10;3-115. 

19.  Later  Roman  philosophy.  Botsford,  Source  Book  of 
Ancient  History,  510-516. 

20.  Christianity  and  legislation.  Alorey,  OiitUne^  of  Roman 
Law,  148-152. 

21.  Rights  of  Roman  citizenship.  Capes.  The  Early  Empire^ 
184-189. 

22.  The  Roman  police.     Lanciani,  Ancient  Rome,  206-212. 

Questions 

1.  In  the  views  of  the  Forum  (p.  280)  point  out  the  Sacred 
Way,  the  palaces  of  the  Caesars,  the  senate  house,  the  rostra. 

2.  In  the  general  view  of  Rome,  point  out  the  Colosseum,  the 
Circus  ]Maximus,  the  Pantheon,  the  Campus  Martius,  the  baths 
of  Caracalla. 

3.  In  what  way  were  the  cities  of  the  empire  like  little  Romes  ? 
Name  a  city  that  had  more  commerce  than  Rome. 

4.  Name  the  boundaries  of  the  empire  under  Augustus.  Name 
two  provinces  on  each  of  the  three  continents  })ordering  the 
Mediterranean. 

5.  Why  did  the  upper  classes  become  richer,  the  lower  classes 
poorer,  and  the  middle  class  gradually  disappear  ? 

6.  Explain  who  the  workers  were  in  the  Roman  world,  telling 
what  each  did.  Was  it  possible,  with  so  many  idlers,  to  produce 
sufficient  wealth  to  give  every  one  a  comfortable  living?  Why 
then  was  the  standard  of  life  in  the  Roman  world  higher  than  it 


ROMANIZATION  OF  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD     305 

had  been  formerly  and  higher  than  it  was  for  fifteen  centuries 
after  that  time  ? 

7.  Compare  the  position  of  women  in  Egypt,  in  Babylonia,  in 
Greece,  in  early  Rome  and  under  the  empire. 

8.  Describe  a  Roman  house ;  the  dress  of  a  high  class  Roman 
man. 

9.  What  were  the  real  differences  between  the  Greek  and  the 
Roman  games  and  amusements  ? 

10.  Show  the  importance  of  the  "Pax  Romana"  in  the  history 
of  the  world. 

11.  In  what  direction  does  the  Appian  Way  take  us?  What 
important  aqueduct  do  we  see  from  the  Way  ?  What  road 
would  we  take  to  the  Po  valley  ?  Give  the  location  of  four  other 
important  Roman  roads. 

12.  Describe  the  steps  in  the  extension  of  Roman  citizenship, 
the  Latin  language,  Roman  law.  Show  that  each  added  some- 
thing to  the  civilization  of  both  the  ancient  and  the  modern 
world. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


THE   ROMAN  EMPIRE  AFTER  AUGUSTUS 


The  Julian 
emperors 
added  to 
the  power 
of  the 
"princeps." 


Tiberius, 
14-37  A.D. 


From  Augustus  to  Marcus  Aurelius  (14-180  a.d.) 

388.  The  Julian  Princes.  —  The  immediate  successors 
of  Augustus  were  related  to  Caesar  by  blood  or  adoption, 
and  are  therefore  called  the  Julian  emperors.^  In  a  general 
way  they  tried  to  carry  out  the  policies  of  Augustus,  Ijut 
they  were  men  wholly  unlike  him.  Yet  each  of  these 
emperors  ruled  these  wide  dominions  fairly  well.  Each 
of  them  was  obliged  to  add  to  the  power  of  the  emperor, 
since  he  lacked  the  influence  that  had  made  Augustus 
supreme. 

The  immediate  successor  of  Augustus  was  Tiberius, 
a  general  of  mature  years  before  he  became  "  princeps." 
Tiberius  wished  to  rule  firmly  and  justly,  but  he  was 
cold,  narrow  and  suspicious.  He  surrounded  himself 
with  spies,  called  "  de-la'tors,"  who  took  particular  pains 
to  hunt  out  offenders.  In  the  last  years  of  his  reign 
Tiberius  and  the  senate  banished  or  put  to  death  many 
whom  they  suspected  of  plotting  ^against  them.  He  was 
followed  by  an  adopted  grandson  who  was  practically 
insane.  From  our  point  of  view  the  most  important  event 
of  this  period  was  the  work  of  Jesus  Christ  in  Judea, 
ending  with  his  crucifixion. 

389.  Claudian  Princes.  —  The  senate  was  now  anxious 
to  abolish  the  principate  or  rule  of  the  ''  princeps,"  but 

*  The  twelve  Cajsars  were  :  (Julian  line)  (Cajsar),  Augustus,  27  b.c- 
14  A.D.,  Tiberius,  14-37  a.d.,  Caligula,  37-41 ;  (Claudian  line),  Claudius, 
41-54,  Nero,  54-68,  (Galba,  68-69,  Otho,  69.  Vitellius,  69)  ;  (Flavian 
Une),  Vespatian,  69-79,  Titus,  79-81,  Domitian,  81-96. 

306 


FROM  AUGUSTUS  TO  MARCUS  AURELIUS     307 

the  soldiers  hailed  as  the  new  prince,  Clau'di-us,  an  ungainly  Principate 
man  who  preferred  his  study  to  a  public  position.  Al-  ?^?^^^^^^' 
though  Claudius  was  an  object  of  derision  to  the  army, 
and  of  amusement  to  the  people,  he  ruled  Rome  well. 
Capable  freedmen  had  charge  of  his  government,  so  far 
as  the  ambitious  women  of  the  palace  permitted.  Under 
Claudius  began  the  conquest  of  Britain,^  which  was  to 
remain  a  Roman  province  for  four  centuries.  He  built 
great  aqueducts,  the  remains  of  one  of  which  are  shown 
on  page  298.  Claudius  also  extended  citizenship  to  many 
individuals  and  towns  in  the  provinces,  thus  helping  to 
Romanize  western  Europe. 

Claudius  was  succeeded  by  his  stepson,  Nero,  a  youth  The  rule 
who  was  interested  in  art  and  philosophy,  but  was  vain  ^^.  ^0^°' 

^  t-    J  1  54-68  A.D. 

and  headstrong.  He  was  aided  at  first  by  able  advisers, 
the  most  famous  of  whom  was  Seneca ;  but  later  he  was 
guilty  of  atrocious  crimes,  among  them  the  murder  of 
his  mother  because  he  suspected  her  of  plotting  against 
him.  Under  Nero  occurred  one  of  the  greatest  fires  that 
Rome  had  known.  It  was  said  and  believed  at  the  time 
that  Nero  sat  in  his  palace,  fiddling,  while  Rome  burned. 
In  order  to  gain  popularity  Nero  is  reported  to  have 
accused  the  new  and  despised  sect  of  Christians  of 
having  set  fire  to  the  city. 

390.    The    Army    and    the    Emperor.  —  Augustus    and   influence 
Tiberius  had  been  generals  before  they  had  become  em-  ?^  ^^^  ^^^^ 

.  in  naming 

perors.  Several  of  their  successors  as  well  owed  their  emperors, 
position  to  the  support  of  the  army.  Most  of  the  troops, 
to  be  sure,  were  on  the  frontier ;  but  a  large  body-guard 
of  the  emperor,  called  the  pre-tor'i-an  guard,  remained  at 
Rome,  where  it  used  its  influence  to  secure  the  selection 
of  its  favorites.  It  was  the  custom  for  a  new  emperor 
to  give  this  body-guard  special  gifts  or  donations  on  his 
accession  to  the  imperial  throne. 

^  Beside  Britain  Claudius  filled  in  two  gaps  by  adding  Thrace  and 
Mauretania. 


308 


ROME 


The  yoar  of 
the  four 
emperors. 


On  the  death  of  Nero  difTerent  factions  in  the  army 
supi)orted  different  candidates  for  the  position  of  im- 
perator.  One  "  princeps  "  followed  another  in  such 
rapid  succession  that  the  year  09  a.d.  is  called  the  year 
of  the  four  emperors.  Finally  Ves-pa'si-an,  the  com- 
mander in  the  East,  a  man  of  the  common  people,  and 
not  even  a  member  of  a  Roman  family,  became  head  of 


Spoils  from  Jerusalem. 


Destruction 
of  Jerusalem 

(70  A.D.) 

and 
Pompeii 

(79  A.D.) . 


the  Roman  empire.  Vespasian  and  his  sons  are  called, 
because  of  their  family  name,  rulers  of  the  Fla'vi-an 
house. 

391.  The  Flavian  Rulers.  —  Vespasian  had  been  called 
to  Rome  from  his  attempted  conquest  of  the  Jews,  who 
had  revolted  against  Roman  rule.  The  siege  of  Jerusalem 
was  continued  by  Ti'tus,  son  of  Vespasian.  When  Titus 
finally  captured  the  city,  nearly  a  million  Jews  perished 
rather  than  surrender  to  the  Romans.  Titus  brought 
back  to  Rome  the  seven-branched  golden  candle-stick, 
a  view  of  which  is  shown  on  his  triumphal  arch.  A  few 
years  after  this  military  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Pom- 
peii and  Her-cu-la'ne-um,  two  cities  near  Naples,  were 
destroyed  by  molten  lava  and  ashes  from  the  huge  vol- 


FROM  AUGUSTUS  TO  MARCUS  AURELIUS     309 

cano,  Ve-su'vi-us.  The  excavation  of  Pompeii  during 
recent  years  has  given  us  an  idea  of  just  liow  old  Roman 
houses  were  constructed.  We  have  found  Roman  utensils 
and  furniture  and  in  some  cases  draperies  that  had  been 
in  use  when  the  city  was  covered. 

The   rule  of  the   Flavian   emperors   kept  the   armies 
from   absolutely   controlling  the   choice  of  emperor.     It 


Growing 
power  of  the 
emperor. 


Vesuvius  from  Forum  of  Pompeii. 


not  only  gave  Rome  a  more  stable  government,  but  it 
developed  the  power  of  the  emperor.  Vespasian's  younger 
son,  Do-mi'ti-an,  ruled  almost  as  a  tyrant,  disregarding 
both  the  senate  and  magistrates.  If  the  Roman  world 
was  not  to  relapse  into  the  disorder  of  the  first  century 
before  Christ,  it  was  necessary  that  the  emperor  should 
have  more  power. 

392.    The  Five  Good  Emperors  —  Trajan.  —  Rome  was  The  five 
fortunate  in  having,  for  nearly  a  century,  rulers  so  wise  ^erors^lie- 
and  public  spirited  that  they  were  called  "  the  five  good   iso  a.d.). 


310 


ROME 


The  con- 
quests of 
Trajan 
(9S-117). 


Hadrian 
as  orKaiiizcr 
and  builder. 


emperors."  *     Most  of  these  men  were  provineials,  who 
took  an  interest  in  the  provinces  as  well  as  in  Rome. 

The  first  important 
ruler  of  these  five 
Soocl  em]:)erors  was 
Tra'jan,  a  Spaniard. 
Trajan  was  a  general 
and  a  conqueror.  He 
subdued  Da'ci-a 
north  of  the  Danube, 
and  made  the  prov- 
ince so  thoroughly 
Roman  that  it  is 
called  Roumania  at 
the  present  time.  He 
invaded  the  domin- 
ions of  the  Par'thi- 
ans  in  the  East,  but 
his  conquests  in  that 
part  of  the  world  did 
not  last.^  Trajan  was  one  of  the  first  emperors  to  give 
help  to  poor  children,  a  work  which  w\as  carried  much 
farther  by  his  successor,  Hadrian. 

393.  Hadrian  the  Organizer.  —  Ha'dri-an  has  been 
called  the  only  man  of  genius  among  the  Roman  emperors. 
He  was  a  great  organizer  and  builder.  He  organized  a 
band  of  assistants  to  help  in  managing  the  government, 
so  that  the  empire  was  better  governed  than  it  had  been 
before.  He  gathered  the  scattered  Roman  laws  into  a 
system,  thus  taking  one  of  the  first  steps  to  create  that 
great  code  of  laws  for  which  Rome  is  so  famous.  In 
Rome,  but  particularly  in  the  provinces,  he  constructed 


statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 


1  Nerva,  96-98   a.d.,  Trajan,  9H-117,   Hadrian,    117-138,  Antoninus 
Pius,  138-161,  Marcus  Aurelius.  161-1X0  a.d.      , 

2  See  map,  following  page  250. 


FROM   AUGUSTUS  TO   MARCUS  AURELIUS      311 


buildings,  rebuilt  roads  and  erected  walls  for  defence. 
His  own  tomb  on  the  bank  of  the  Tiber,  now  the 
*'  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,"  and  the  great  wall  across 
the  north  of  Britain  may  be  taken  as  examples  of  his 
work. 

394.  The  Antonines.  —  Hadrian  was  succeeded  by  the 
two  Antonines,  the  elder  of  whom,  An-to-ni'nus  Pi'us,  had 
a  long  reign  famous  for  its  lawyers  and  philanthropists. 
The  world  was  certainly  growing  more  humane,  if  not 
better  in  other  ways.  The  younger  Antoninus,  Mar'cus 
Au-re'li-uSj  was  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  Stoic  phi- 
losophers. He  was  a  man  of  peace,  who  loved  study  and 
both  preached  and  practised  self-control  as  one  of  the 
greatest  of  virtues.  Most  of  his  daj^s  were  spent  at  the 
front  trying  to  keep  off  the  enemies  of  the  empire.  The 
reigns  of  the  Antonines  are  to  be  remembered  as  perhaps 
the  most  prosperous  period  of  the  ''  pax  Romana."  After 
the  Antonines,  however,  poor  Rome  was  to  know  com- 
paratively little  peace  and  much  less  prosperity  than  in 
former  centuries. 


The  age  of 
the  Anto- 
nines, per- 
haps most 
prosperous 
period  of 
the  "pax 
Romana." 


Disorder  and  Reorganization  (180-337  a.d.) 

395.  The  Barrack  Emperors.  —  Within  a  few  years 
after  the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius  the  pretorian  guards 
offered  for  sale  the  office  of  emperor.  Strangely  enough 
they  were  overpowered  by  a  general  leading  a  regular 
army.  For  a  century  the  empire  was  ruled  by  leaders 
who  depended  for  support  on  their  armies.  In  that  cen- 
tury imperial  honors  were  granted  to  twenty-seven  em- 
perors, besides  their  colleagues  and  assistants. 

One  of  the  earliest  of  these  ''  barrack  emperors,"  Sep- 
tim'i-us  Se-ve'rus,  erected  a  great  triumphal  arch  in  the 
Forum,  where  it  still  stands  and  can  bo  seen.  His  son 
Caracalla  is  to  be  remembered  simply  because  he  extended 


The  chang- 
ing and 
disorderly 
rule  of 
military 
com- 
manders. 


Septimius 
Sevcrus  and 
Caracalla. 


312 


K()Mi<: 


The  con- 
quests of 
Aurcliaii 
and  fall  of 
Palmyra 
(273). 


Distinction 
between 
the  early 
empire  and 
the  later 
empire. 


citizoiLship  to  almost  every  one  in  order  that  he  might 
tax  them  (§  385). 

396.  Aurelian  and  Zenobia.  —  Naturally  the  struggle 
of  generals  for  imperial  honors  left  the  frontiers  unde- 
fended and  the  empire  in  disorder.  Fortunately  for 
Rome  an  emperor  of  considerable  military  ability  came  to 

the  throne  at  this  crisis. 
This  emperor,  Au-re'li-an, 
destroyed  the  hordes  of 
Germans  that  had  in- 
vaded Italy,  put  down  a 
great  insurrection  in  the 
West  and  reconquered 
the  East.  In  the  East 
the  city  of  Pal-my'ra, 
east  of  Damascus,  had 
brought  under  her  rule 
all  of  Syria,  and  most  of 
Egypt  and  Asia  Minor. 
Ze-no'bi-a,  the  ambitious 
queen  of  Palmyra,  hoped 
to  make  her  son  emperor 
of  this  great  region.  Aurelian  soon  destroyed  the  hopes 
and  plans  of  Zenobia,  for  he  conquered  her  chief  city,  and 
finally  destroyed  her  capital,  Palmyra,  bringing  Zenobia 
back  to  Rome,  where  she  helped  to  grace  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  triumphs  Rome  had  ever  beheld.  Aurelian 
had  kept  the  empire  intact. 

397.  The  Reorganization  of  the  Empire.  —  In  284  a.d. 
Di-o-cle'ti-an  became  emperor.  Diocletian  frankly  aban- 
doned all  of  the  forms  of  the  republic  which  most  of  his 
predecessors  had  used  and  established  a??  absolute  monarchy. 
On  this  account  the  empire  from  27  B.C.  to  284  a.d.  is  usu- 
ally called  the  earU)  empire;  the  empire  from  284  to  the 
"  fall  of  Rome  "  in  476  being  called  the  later  empire. 


Walls  of  Aurelian. 


DISORDER  AND   REORGANIZATION 


313 


Diocletian  was  a  rough  soldier  and  the  son  of  a  freed-  Diocletian 
man.  He  divided  the  empire  into  four  pre'fec-tures,  over  established 
each  of  which  ruled  an  official  called  an  Augustus  or  a   court  and 


Caesar  who  had  almost  as  much  power  as  he  had 
prefectures  were  subdivided  into  di'o-ce-ses,  each  of  which 
contained  many  provinces.  Even  Italy  was  divided 
into  small  provinces,  so  that  the  provincial  governor 
was  no  longer  a  powerful  official.     In  this  way  Diocletian 


'^llQ    an  official 
bureau- 


cracy. 


^^^^''  Ir     Jl 

St.  Sophia,  Constantinople. 


made  himself  the  head  of  a  great  organization,  or  bureau- 
cracy, which  he  controlled  absolutely. 

Diocletian  also  removed  his  capital  from  Rome  to  a  The 
city  in  Asia  Minor  where  he  established  an  oriental  court,   oriental 

•^  court  of  the 

Since  he  claimed  to  be  a  god,  those  that  sought  audience  later 
with  the  emperor  must  prostrate  themselves  before  him.   emperors. 
He  was  surrounded  by  courtiers.     In  spite  of  this  court, 
Diocletian   gave   the   empire   the   powerful    government 
that  it  needed  against  the  enemies  which  pressed  upon 
it  from  every  side. 

398.    Constantine.  —  Some   of   Diocletian's    work   sur- 
vived,  but  his  attempt  to  give  the  empire  four  great 


314 


ItOMP] 


Constantine 

becomes 

emperor. 


Recognition 
of  Chris- 
tianity as 
a  state 
religion  and 
founding  of 
Constan- 
tinople. 


leaders  failed.  Soon  after  his  death  there  were  several 
gemerals  in  the  field  trying  to  prove  their  right  to  be 
emperor.  The  greatest  of  these  was  Con'stan-tine,  whose 
father  had  been  Csesar  of  the  West  under  Diocletian. 
Constantine's  soldiers  proolaimed  him  emperor.  In 
312  A.D.  he  defeated  his  chief  rival  at  Alil'vi-an  Bridge, 
just  outside  of  the  city  of  Rome.  In  this  battle,  he  ac- 
cepted as  his  badge  the  insignia  of  the  C^'hristians.  Con- 
tantine's  mother  was  an  orthodox  Christian,  and  he  re- 
alized that  Christianity  must  become  the  chief  religion 
of  the  empire. 

Immediately  after  the  battle  of  Milvian  Bridge,  Con- 
stantine recognized  Christianity  as  a  state  religion  and 
exempted  the  property  of  its  churches  in  the  West  from 
direct  taxation.  A  few  years  later  he  presided  over  the 
first  great  council  of  the  Church  at  Ni-cae'a  (§  403).  Be- 
side his  recognition  of  Christianity,  Constantine's  great 
work  was  the  establishment  of  the  capital  of  the  empire 
at  Byzantium.  He  called  the  new  great  walled  city  after 
himself,  Con-stan-ti-no'ple. 


The  Spread  of  Christianity 


General. 


Judea  as  a 
part  of  the 
Roman 
empire. 


399.  Preparation  for  Christianity  in  the  Roman  World. 
—  Before  taking  up  the  study  of  the  Christian  Church  in 
the  time  of  Constantine,  let  us  consider  first  the  con- 
ditions in  the  early  empire  that  had  favored  the  spread  of 
Christianity,  and  second,  the  early  history  of  the  Church. 

In  the  days  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius  the  little  kingdom 
of  Herod  in  Palestine  was  practically  a  part  of  the  Roman 
empire.  The  demand  for  a  Roman  census  had  taken 
Joseph  and  Mary  to  Bethlehem,  whert^  Jesus  was  born. 
Roman  tax  gatherers  or  publicans  were  to  be  found  in 
Judea.  Matthew  belonged  to  tliht  hated  class.  Roman 
soldiers  and  centurions  kept  order  and  a  Roman  r(jpresent- 


THE   SPREAD   OP   CHRISTIANITY 


315 


ative,    Pon'tius    Pi'late,    looked    after    the    interests    of 
Rome. 

Judea  was  not  only  a  part  of  Rome,  but  the  great 
Mediterranean  world  was  at  peace,  so  that  teachers  and 
travellers  might  go  from  one  end  of  the  empire  to  the 
other.  In  the  eastern  Mediterranean  world,  Greek  was 
the  universal  language  and  a  higher  moral  standard  had 
been  taught  by  the  Stoic  philosophers. 

400.  The  Work  of  the  Apostles.  —  For  several  years 
Jesus  taught  among  the  Jews.  When  he  was  rejected 
by  the  Jews,  he  sent  his  disciples  forth  to  preach  the  gos- 
pel to  all  the  world.  The  story  of  his  life  and  teachings 
is  preserved  to  us  in  the  four  Gospels.  The  work  of  his 
followers  in  carrying  the  message  to  non-Jewish  peoples 
after  Christ's  crucifixion  and  resurrection  is  embodied  in 
the  Acts  of  the  apostles.  The  writings  of  the  apostles 
to  the  gentiles  are  called  the  Epistles,  or  letters. 

The  most  active  of  the  apostles  were  Peter,  one  of  the 
disciples,  whose  knowledge  of  human  nature  helped  him 
in  his  work,  and  Paul,  a  convert,  who  had  been  a  Stoic. 
Paul  was  able  to  reach  the  Greeks  because  he  understood 
the  Greek  mind.  Peter,  Paul,  and  other  teachers  made 
many  converts  to  the  new  faith  of  the  fatherhood  of  God 
and  the  brotherhood  of  man. 

401.  The  Early  Church.  —  As  the  number  of  believers 
increased  in  the  cities  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean  world, 
it  was  customary  for  each  congregation  to  select  deacons 
to  look  after  the  poor,  and  elders  to  rule  the  church  and 
do  the  teaching  or  preaching.  These  persons  were  chosen 
by  the  association  or  congregation.  In  time  one  of  the 
elders  was  in  a  sense  set  aside  as  pastor  for  the  special 
work  of  looking  after  the  "  flock."  When  a  city  had  ac- 
quired several  distinct  congregations,  one  of  the  leading 
pastors  was  recognized  as  bishop.  The  bishops  of  the  pro- 
vincial capitals  were  usually  more  important  than  those  of 


Unity  of 
the  Roman 
empire. 
Moral 
progress. 


Teaching 
of  Jesus 
Christ  and 
his  apostles. 


Work  of 
Peter  and 
Paul. 


Officials  of 
the  early 
Church. 


316 


ROME 


Nature  of 
tho  persecu- 
tion under 
the  Roman 
emperors. 


Reasons  for 
persecution 
of  the 
Christians, 
and  its 
results. 


the  other  cities  of  the  province,  and  the  bishops,  or  melro- 
politans,  of  th(^  capitals  of  the  (hoceses,  were  (jven  more 
promin(Mit.  Among  the  great  l)ishops,  the  bishops  of 
Rome  early  became  leaders,  for  Rome  was  supposed  to 
have  received  special  privileges  from  Peter,  and  Rome 
was  still  the  capital  of  the  whole  empire. 

402.  Persecutions  of  the  Early  Christians.  —  Beginning 
with  Nero  the  growing  sect  of  (Christians  had  been  per- 
secuted by  the  state  authorities.  Speaking  of  the 
Christians  after  the  great  fire  in  Rome  (§  389),  one  writer 
says :  "  Vast  multitudes  were  convicted,  not  so  much  on 
the  charge  of  conflagration,  as  of  hating  the  human  race. 
And  in  their  deaths  they  were  made  the  subjects  of  sport, 
for  they  were  covered  with  the  hides  of  wild  beasts,  and 
worried  to  death  by  dogs,  or  nailed  to  crosses,  or  set  fire 
to,  and,  when  day  declined,  wen)  burned  to  serve  for 
nocturnal  lights." 

There  were  several  reasons  why  Rome,  ordinarily  tol- 
erant of  foreign  religions,  was  harsh  with  the  Christians. 
The  Christians  kept  apart,  obeying  the  injunction  to  be 
separate  from  the  world.  When  the}-  did  not  take 
part  in  the  great  public  religious  festivals,  they  offended 
the  populace.  As  they  refused  to  worship  dead  emperors, 
or  consider  living  emperors  as  demi-gods,  the  Romans 
thought  them  guilty  of  little  less  than  treason.  They 
held  secret  meetings,  and  the  government  feared  and 
discouraged  all  secret  meetings,  particularly  of  so  large 
a  secret  society  as  the  Christian  Church.  Finally,  the 
Roman  people  believed  that  the  Christians  were  guilty 
of  eating  children  and  of  other  revolting  practices.  Under 
some  emperors  the  (christians  were  left  alone,  but,  under 
the  best  emperors  who  cared  for  the  public  welfare,  they 
were  harshly  persecuted.  Death  as  a  martyr  was  pre- 
ferred to  life  itself  by  the  early  Christians,  and  the  Church 
thrived  on  persecution. 


THE   SPREAD   OF   CHRISTIANITY 


317 


403.  The  Triumph  of  the  Church.  —  Constantine  fore- 
saw that  the  Christian  Church  would  be  even  more  pow- 
erful than  it  was  in  his  day.  He  practically  allied  himself 
with  this  powerful  organization,  giving  religious  toleration 
and  special  privileges  in  return  for  the  support  of  the 
Christians. 

Before  the  time  of  Constantine  there  had  been  a  great 
many  different  doctrines  and  beliefs  held  by  the  Christians. 
Under  Constantine  the  Church  was  split  into  two  great 
religious  factions.  Ath-a-na'sius  and  his  followers  believed 
that  Christ  was  of  the  same  substance  as  God,  and  equal 
in  all  respects  to  him,  while  Arius  and  his  followers  main- 
tained that  Christ  was  of  like  substance  with  God,  but 
necessarily  inferior  to  him  as  a  son  is  to  a  father.  At 
the  Council  of  Nicoea,  in  Asia  Minor  (325  a.d.),  the 
doctrine  of  Athanasius  was  accepted  as  the  orthodox  be- 
lief, and  the  Adrians  were  thereafter  considered  heretics. 
This  did  not  keep  the  Arians  from  converting  many  of 
the  German  tribes  to  Christianity,  so  that  the  majority 
of  the  Germans  that  invaded  the  empire  the  next  cen- 
tury were  Christians,  but  were  Arians. 

The  triumph  of  Christianity  removed  the  opportunity 
for  martyrdom  and  made  the  Church  wealthy  and  power- 
ful. The  Church  gained  members  who  were  not  really 
Christians.  It  adopted  many  "  heathen "  customs  in 
order  to  be  popular.  Under  The-o-do'si-us  I  the  Christian 
Church  was  finally  made  the  state  religion  and  others 
were  prohibited. ^  The  Church  had  prospered  on  adver- 
sity. As  a  distinctly  spiritual  body,  it  began  to  decline 
with  prosperity. 


Alliance  of 
Constantine 
and  the 
Church. 


The  Council 
of  Nicsea 
(325)  de- 
cided that 
Arians  were 
heretics. 


Gains  and 

losses 

through 

official 

recognition. 


^  Not  only  was  Christianity  recognized  as  the  state  religion  under 
Theodosius,  but  one  experience  of  his  shows  the  growing  power  of  the 
bishops.  In  a  moment  of  passion  Theodosius  had  ordered  the  execution 
of  several  thousand  people  in  a  town  that  had  relielled  against  his  author- 
ity. Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  would  not  allow  Theodosius  to  worship 
in  the  cathedral  of  that  city  until  he  had  done  penance  for  his  crime,  and 
had  been  absolved. 


318 


ROME 


Early  Ger- 
man in- 
vasions 
cliockod  l)y 
Theodosius. 


The  eastern 
and  west- 
ern empires 
after 
395  A.D. 


The  bishops 
as  civil 
leaders. 


Decline  of  the  Roman  Empire 

404.  Division  of  the  Empire  under  Theodosius  the 
Great.  —  In  37()  a.d.,  a  few  years  l)('f(jr('  Theodosius  be- 
came emperor,  the  German  tribes  that  had  been  threaten- 
ing the  borders  of  the  empire  for  centuries  finally  crossed 
the  Danube,  and  ravaged  the  provinces  north  of  Greece. 
At  Ad-ri-a-no'ple  (378  a.d.)  tliey  d(\stroyed  the  army  of  the 
emperor.  Before  this  time  a  great  man}^  Germans  had 
been  allowed  to  join  the  Roman  army  or  to  settle  peaceably 
as  colonists  on  Roman  soil.  When  Theodosius  was  called 
upon,  he  forced  the  Germans  to  stop  plundering.  Until 
after  his  death,  th(^  invasions  ceased.  We  shall  consider 
the  story  of  the  German  invasions  later. 

In  395  A.D.  Theodosius  I  died.  He  divided  the  empire 
between  his  two  sons,  and  the  West  and  the  East  were 
never  again  united.  The  great  Roman  empire  had,  in 
a  sense,  come  to  an  end.  Henceforth  we  have  the  eastern 
Roman  empire,  or  By-zan'tine  empire,  which  lasted  a 
thousand  years,  and  a  western  Roman  empire,  which 
lasted  but  a  short  time,  although  an  empire  called 
Roman  was  revived  by  Charlemagne  (§  447),  and  later 
by  the  kings  of  Germany. 

405.  The  Invaders  and  the  Western  Empire.  —  Very 
little  resistance  was  offered  to  the  German  invaders.  The 
local  governments  of  the  empire  had  already  lost  prac- 
tically all  of  their  authority,  and  the  emperor  and  his 
assistants  no  longer  could  maintain  order  or  keep  off 
invaders.  The  l)ishops  alone  seemed  to  represent  author- 
ity. In  more  than  one  instance,  the  bishops  built  defences 
and  paid  troops  out*  of  the  church  treasury.  When  the 
invaders  appeared,  the  bishops  rather  than  the  civil 
magistrates  went  out  to  meet  them  and  nt^gotiated  for 
terms  of  peace.  The  Germans  respected  the  authority 
of  these  cliurch  leaders  somewhat,  since  the  barbarians 
were  nominally  Christians. 


DECLINE   OF   THE   ROMAN   EMPIRE 


319 


Neve^rtheless,  the  people  of  country  and  town  suffered 
greatly.  The  small  farmers  fled  to  their  rich  and  power- 
ful neighbors  for  protection.  The  barbarians  sacked  and 
plundered  to  their  hearts'  content.  Twice  even  the  strong 
walls  of  Rome  failed  to  keep  out  the  invaders.  In  455 
Rome  was  sacked  so  thoroughly  by  the  Vandals  that  the 
term  vandalism  has  become  a  name  for  ruthless  plundering. 

408.  The  ''Fall  of  Rome,"  476  a.d.  —  Fifty  years 
after  the  death  of  Theodosius  a  still  greater  clanger  threat- 
ened the  empire.  A  savage  Asiatic  race  known  as  the 
Huns  had  found  a  great  leader  in  their  young  king,  At'ti-la, 
afterward  called  "  the  Scourge  of  God."  From  his  do- 
mains in  eastern  Russia  Attila  led  his  small,  dark,  fiery 
horsemen  against  the  rich  province  of  Gaul.  After  cap- 
turing many  cities,  he  was  forced  to  give  up  the  siege  of 
Orleans  by  the  arrival  of  an  army  of  Roman  and  German 
troops  under  A-e'ti-us,  "  the  last  of  the  Romans."  In  451 
Aetius  defeated  the  great  horde  of  the  Huns  in  a  terrible 
battle  near  Chd'lons.  ^ 

As  the  western  Roman  empire  was  now  almost  wholly 
occupied  by  Germanic  kingdoms,  there  seemed  to  be  no 
further  reason  for  keeping  up  a  name.  In  476  a.d.  the 
Germans  sent  the  imperial  regalia  from  Italy  to  the  em- 
peror at  Constantinople,  and  the  western  empire  came 
to  an  end. 

407.  Political  and  Military  Reasons  for  the  "  Fall  of 
Rome."  —  The  reasons  for  the  break-up  of  the  Roman 
Empire  were  very  numerous.  The  empire  was  too  large 
to  he  held  together  permanently.  There  were  too  many 
nations  and  peoples  and  diverse  interests  within  the 
empire.  Under  the  late  republic  and  the  early  empire 
the  central  government  did  not  have  enough  power  to 


Plundering 
by  the 
invaders. 


The  Huns 
are  defeated 
by  the 
Romans 
and  the 
Germans. 


End  of  the 

separate 

western 

Roman 

empire. 


Political 
problem  of 
ruling  a  vast 
empire. 


1  Attila  afterward  marched  into  Italy,  where  he  secured  a  great  amount 
of  booty.  He  died  the  next  year.  The  memories  of  his  terrible  raids 
lasted  for  centuries. 


320 


ROME 


Military 
failures  of 
the  Roman 
peoples. 


Decline  of 
commerce, 
population 
and  food 
supply. 


The  "lati- 
fundia" 
were  great 
semi-feudal 
estates. 


rule  so  groat  an  area.  Aftor  Diocletian  1  licrc  was  too  little 
local  government,  so  that  the  task  of  ruling  so  vast  an 
empire  was  too  great  for  a  central  bunvaucracy. 

Following  the  political  collapse  of  Rome  came  the 
decline  of  the  army.  The  ''  pax  Romana "  had  given 
opportunity  for  trade.  The  Romans  preferred  to  make 
money  rather  than  to  fight.  On  the  frontiers  the  armies 
were  made  up  chiefly  of  barbarians.  When  the  invasions 
came,  the  Romans  depended  on  barbarians  to  keep  off 
the  barbarians. 

408.  Economic  and  Social  Causes  of  Rome's  Decline.  — 
More  important  than  the  military  and  political  causes 
of  the  break-up  of  the  empire  were  the  economic  and  social 
causes,  because  the  latter  were  more  fundamental.  The 
moral  standards  of  the  people  were  low.  As  disorder 
became  more  general,  naturally  commerce  declinfnl. 
This  meant  that  distant  parts  of  the  empire  had  much 
less  in  common  than  formerly,  and  therefore  did  not  need 
to  be  held  together.  As  long  as  slaves  were  abundant 
and  business  prospered,  all  went  well.  But  the  supply 
of  slaves  declined,  so  that  the  empire  did  not  produce 
enough  for  a  decent  living  for  even  the  declining  popula- 
tion. In  order  to  have  a  supply  of  food  and  furnish  taxes 
for  the  expensive  imperial  government,  the  peasants  and 
small  farmers  were  forced  to  stay  on  their  lands  and  cul- 
tivate them  at  a  loss.  Many  freemen  voluntarily  went 
to  the  great  landed  proprietors  and  offered  their  services 
in  return  for  protection  against  the  imperial  government, 
as  well  as  against  robbers  and  barbarians. 

409.  Growth  of  Great  Estates.  —  On  the  large  estates 
the  former  landless  men  and  slaves  became  serfs,  who  were 
bound  to  the  soil.  If  it  had  not  been  for  the  influence  of 
the  Church,  most  of  these  men  \vould  have  become  a  down- 
trodden class  of  slaves.  The  peasants  became  tenants 
of  the  nobles  and  lived  in  groups  of  houses  surrounding 


DECLINE   OF  THE   ROMAN   EMPIRE  321 

the  villas,  or  country  houses.  In  consequence  they  came 
to  be  called  villeins.  The  small  farmers  received  their 
farms  back  from  the  nobles  as  a  ''  ben'e-fice."  These  great 
landed  estates,  whose  proprietors  defied  the  emperor's 
tax-collectors  and  kept  off  the  barbarians,  continued  to 
exist  for  several  centuries.  After  a  time  they  developed 
into  a  new  system  of  land-holding  and  government,  called 
the  ''  feu'dal  system." 

410.  The  Eastern  Empire  after  476  a.d.  —  In  the  east-   The  wars 
ern   Mediterranean,   the   older   and    more    homogeneous   ^^<^  ?^w^  ^^ 

.  .  .  Justinian. 

civilization  made  it  possible  for  the  empire  to  survive  for 
ten  centuries  after  the  "  fall  "  of  the  western  empire. 
Although  hard  pressed  by  the  Germans,  the  eastern  em-  , 

pire  gradually  revived.  Under  Jus-tinH-an  (527-565 
A.D.)  the  eastern  empire  extended  its  territories  again  into 
Italy  and  into  Africa.  Justinian  is,  however,  far  less 
famous  for  his  conquests  than  for  the  code  of  Justinian, 
the  great  body  of  Roman  laws  that  was  completed  under 
his  direction  (§  387).  This  code,  as  we  noticed,  is  still 
the  basis  of  much  of  the  law  of  the  civilized  world. 

After  Justinian  the  empire  lost  many  of  its  possessions,   Territories, 
for  it  was  attacked  by  new  invaders  at  different  times,   ^"it"^^.^^^*^ 

'^  _  protective 

It  managed  to  keep  Greece,  the  Balkan  provinces,  most  of  work  of  the 
Asia  Minor,  and  some  other  territories.     It  acted  as  a   ^^^*^^" 

'  empire. 

storehouse  for  the  best  culture  of  the  centuries  following 
the  barbarian  invasions.  It  was  almost  as  important 
in  protecting  the  tiny  kingdoms  of  the  different  German 
tribes  from  invaders  who  pressed  in  on  the  north  and  the 
east.  For  these  two  reasons  western  Europe  owes  a 
great  debt  to  the  Byzantine  empire. 

411.  Summary.  —  The    great    Roman    empire    lasted   Periods  of 
five  centuries,  a  fragment  called  the  eastern,  or  Byzantine,   ^^^^^.^ 

'  ^  '  v7  )    imperial 

empire  lasting  a  thousand  years  longer.     The  early  empire  history, 
began  with  Augustus  in  27  b.c,  and  ended  with  Diocletian 
in  284  A.D.     The  later  undivided  empire  ended  with  the 


322 


ROME 


The  empire 
to  Con- 
stantino. 


Develop- 
ment of 
Christianity 
until  it 
was  the 
only  state 
religion. 


Political, 
military, 
social  and 
economic 
causes  of 
the  decline 
of  Rome. 


death  of  Theodosius  in  .'^95  a.d.,  the  wostorn  half  lasting 
until  its  "  fall  "  in  476  a.d.,  and  the  eastern  empire  con- 
tinuing until  Constantinople  was  raptured  by  the  Otto- 
man Turks  in  1453  a.d.     All  of  these  dates  are  important. 

The  immediate  successors  of  Augustus,  called  the  Julian 
princes,  were  ordinary  men.  The  second  century  nearly 
coincided  with  the  rule  of  the  ''  five  good  emperors,"  of 
whom  we  should  remember  Trajan  the  conqueror,  Hadrian 
the  organizer  and  builder,  and  Marcus  Aurelius  the  Stoic 
philosopher.  The  next  century  was  the  period  of  the 
barrack  emperors,  the  greatest  of  whom  was  the  con- 
queror Aurelian.  Diocletian  reorganized  the  empire, 
creating  an  oriental  court  and  an  official  bureaucracy. 
Constantine  gave  Christianity  its  first  standing  as  a 
state  religion. 

The  late  Roman  empire  gave  Christianity  an  excellent 
chance  to  develop,  since  new  religions  were  permitted, 
the  empire  was  united  and  at  peace  and  humanitarian 
ideas  w^ere  "  in  the  air."  Jesus  Christ  taught  only  in 
Palestine,  but  he  sent  his  disciples  and  apostles  to  the 
gentiles.  Many  converts  were  made,  especially  among 
the  poor  of  the  cities.  Churches  were  organized  with 
deacons,  elders  and  bishops.  The  Christians  were  per- 
secuted because  they  kept  apart  from  other  people,  held 
secret  meetings  and  refused  to  respect  the  divine  power  of 
the  emperor.  Under  Constantine  Christianity  was  recog- 
nized as  a  state  religion,  and  under  Theodosius  orthodox 
Christianity  (not  the  Arian  faith)  was  made  the  only  state 
religion. 

Beside  the  invasions  there  were  numerous  causes  of  the 
break-up  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  empire  was  too  large 
to  be  governcid  permanently  as  a  whole.  The  people  had 
forgotten  how  to  fight.  Commerce  had  de('lin(Hi  and  the 
food  supply  was  barely  sufficient  for  the  declining  poi)ula- 
tion.     Since  the  government  could  not  maintain  order,  the 


DECLINE   OF  THE   ROMAN  EMPIRE  323 

great  landed  estates  looked  after  the  landless  men,  who 
became  serfs,  the  peasants,  who  became  villeins,  and  the 
small  landed  proprietors,  who  became  tenants  of  the  great 
nobles. 

General  References 

Botsf ord,  A  History  of  the  A ncient  World,  462-523. 
Davis,  Readings  in  Ancient  History,  II,  182-210,  285-309. 
Botsf  ord,  A  Source  Book  of  Ancient  History,  480-544. 
Gardner,  Rome  the  Middle  of  the  World,  1-109. 
Seignobos,  History  of  the  Roman  People,  289-421. 
Capes,  The  Early  Empire  and  the  Age  of  the  Antonines. 
Pelham,  Outlines  of  Roman  History,  470-576. 
Jones,  The  Roman  Empire. 

Topics 

Hadrian  :  Gardner,  Rome  the  Middle  of  the  World,  61-68 ; 
Capes,  The  Age  of  the  Antonines,  49-73 ;  Jones,  The  Roman 
Empire,  176-195. 

Persecutions  of  the  Christians  :  Seignobos,  The  Roman 
People,  366-372  ;  Munro,  Source  Book  of  Roman  History,  164- 
171,  174;    Fisher,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  30-33,  46-51. 

Economic  Causes  of  the  Decline  of  Rome  :  Botsford, 
Source  Book  of  Ancient  History,  537-544;  Munro  and  Sellery 
(eds.).  Medieval  Civilization,  18-43;  Davis,  Influence  of  Wealth 
in  Imperial  Rome,  314-335 ;  Cunningham,  Western  Civilization 
in  its  Economic  Aspects,  I,  182-195;  Dill,  Roman  Society  in  the 
Last  Century  of  the  Western  Empire,  245-281. 

Studies 

1.  Nero  and  his  times.  Gardner,  Rome  the  Middle  of  the 
World,  35-50. 

2.  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  Seignobos,  The  Roman 
People,  315-320. 

3.  The  destruction  of  Pompeii.  Bulwer-Lytton,  Last  Days  of 
Pompeii,  Book  V,  cliapters  VII-IX. 

4.  The  conquest  of  Britain.  Leo,  Source  Book  of  English 
History,  72-76. 

5.  The  moraUty  of  the  first  century  after  Christ.  Capes, 
The  Early  Empire,  223-232. 


324  UOAIE 

().    Literature  under  the  five  good  emperors.     Capes,  Age  of 
the  Autonine^i,  105-194. 

7.  How    the    Roman  empin^  was    sold    at    auction.     Davis, 
Readings  in  Ancient  History,  II,  203-206. 

8.  How  Aurelian  conquered  Zenobia.     Davis,  Readings,   II, 
207-210. 

9.  Th(>  rule  of  Diocletian.     Botsford,  Source  Book  of  Ancient 
Ilistori/,  527-532. 

10.  Constantine  the  Great.  Gardner,  Rome  the  Middle  of 
the  World,  90-109. 

11.  The  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  The  Bible,  Matthew,  chap- 
ters V-VII. 

12.  Spread  of  the  Christian  doctrines.  The  Bible,  Acts, 
chapter  II. 

13.  The  Arian  controversy.  Emerton,  Introduction  to  the 
Middle  Ages,  98-102. 

14.  Theodosius  and  Ambrose.     Davis,  Readings,  II,  298-300. 

15.  Growth  of  the  papacy  before  476  a.d.  Emerton,  Intro- 
duction to  the  Middle  Ages,  102-108. 

16.  Effect  of  the  Germanic  invasions  on  the  Romans.  Dill, 
Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Western  Empire,  378-382. 

17.  The  small  farmers  and  the  coloni.  Davis,  Influence  oj 
Wealth  in  Imperial  Rome,  237-247. 

Questions 

1.  Name  three  important  emperors  of  the  first  century  a.d.  ; 
three  of  the  five  good  emperors ;  three  of  the  later  emperors. 
Give  one  important  fact  about  each. 

2.  Of  what  importance  was  the  army  to  the  emperors  ?  Show 
how  Hadrian  and  Diocletian  changed  the  imperial  government. 
Describe  the  reorganized  government  of  Diocletian. 

3.  State  the  most  important  teachings  of  Jesus  Christ.  What 
work  did  Paul  do  for  the  early  Church?  How  was  the  Church 
organized  ?     Why  were  the  early  Christians  persecuted  ? 

4.  What  does  orthodox  mean  ?  Why  were  the  Arians  heretics 
after  325  a.d.  ? 

5.  What  was  done  l)y  Constantine  for  the  Christian  Church? 
by  Theodosius?  How  important  were  the  bishops  at  the  time 
of  the  invasions?  Why  was  the  bishop  of  Rome  the  greatest 
of  the  bishops  ? 

6.  Summarize  the  reasons  for  the  decline  of  Rome. 


TRANSITION   FROM  ANCIENT  TIMES 

CHAPTER   XIV 
THE  GERMANS  IN  WESTERN  EUROPE    (376-800  A.D.) 

The  Germans 

412.  Character  of  the  Germans. — The  Germans 'who  A  war-like 
invaded  western  Europe  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen-  ^^^'^'  ^^^^' 

pendent 

turies  came  in  great  tribes.     In  other  words,  whole  peoples   and  rev- 
would  migrate  into  western  Europe  in  order  to  make  their  ^^^^*  °^ 

^  ^  .  ,  women. 

homes  there.  They  were  tall  and  fair  with  fierce  blue 
eyes.^  The  Germans  were  fond  of  war,  and  devoted  a 
large  part  of  their  time  to  gaining  skill  with  arms,  if  not  to 
actual  fighting.  They  were  exceedingly  independent^ 
They  loved  personal  freedom  as  none  of  the  ancient  people 
had  clone.  The  Greeks  desired  the  independence  of  each 
local  community,  but  the  Germans  insisted  on  the  freedom 
of  the  individual,  which  is  quite  a  different  matter.  The 
Germans  had  a  higher  moral  standard  than  the  Greeks  or 
the  later  Romans.  Their  reverence  for  ivornenis  especially 
notable  when  they  are  compared  with  other  early  peoples. 

413.  How   the   Germans   Lived.  —  The   Germans   had  Primitive 
no  cities  or  even  large  permanent  villages  before  the  inva-   fon^^^umty 
sion  of  the  Roman  empire.     They  hved  in  communities,   the  early 

Germans. 
1  "All  have  fierce  blue  eyes,  reddish  hair,  and  huge  bodies  fit  only  for 
sudden  exertion.  They  are  not  very  able  to  endure  labor  that  is  exhaus- 
tive. Heat  and  thirst  they  cannot  withstand  at  all,  though  to  cold  and 
hunger  their  climate  and  soil  have  hardened  them.  Their  food  is  of  a 
simple  variety,  consisting  of  wild  fruit,  fresh  game  and  curdled  milk. 
They  satisfy  their  hunger  without  making  much  preparation  of  cooked 
dishes,  and  without  the  use  of  any  delicacies  at  all.  In  quenching  their 
thirst  they  are  not  so  moderate." 

325 


32G 


THE   GERMANS 


Distinction 
of  social 
classes. 


The  tribal 
govern- 
ment. 


The  leaders, 
the  assem- 
bly and 
the  methods 
used. 


however,  looking  after  their  flocks  and  dividing  up  the  land 
each  year.  In  this  way  no  man  had  a  settled  home  and 
farm,  and  they  did  not  lose  their  zeal  for  war.  They  did 
not  l)uild  carefully,  for  exposure  made  them  better  able  to 
endure  cold  and  heat.  They  dis(;ouraged  private  owner- 
ship of  property,  hoj^ing  in  this  way  to  keep  any  one  from 
gaining  a  large  amount  of  property,  and  to  keep  all  men 
as  nearly  equal  as  possible. 

414.  Classes  among  the  Germans.  —  If  the  Germans 
tried  to  keep  an  economic  equality  of  their  members, 
they  did  not  object  to  social  inequahties.  There  were 
three  well-marked  classes.  The  nobles  held  the  impor- 
tant offices  and  enjoyed  all  of  the  honors.  The  ordinary 
freemen  had  the  right  to  bear  arms  and  attend  the  assem- 
blies. There  were  also  some  slaves,  who  were  usually 
agricultural  bond-servants.  In  the  later  German  laws,  if 
an  offender  injured  a  slave,  there  was  either  no  penalty  or 
a  very  small  fine.  If  he  injured  a  freeman  in  the  same 
way,  he  was  punished  lightly  ;  but,  if  he  did  the  same  thing 
to  a  noble,  the  punishment  was  heavy. 

415.  How  the  Germans  were  Governed.  —  At  the  time 
of  the  invasions  the  Germans  were  organized  into  great 
tribes,  composed  of  many  communities.  The  largest 
tribes  were  ruled  by  kings,  who  were  chosen  always  from 
certain  families.  The  king  was  advised  by  a  council  of 
nobles  (princes)  which  helped  him  to  govern  the  tribe. 
Each  prince  had  many  "  companions,"  noble  youths  who 
followed  him  everywhere.^ 

Each  of  the  local  communities  of  the  Germans  had  its 
own  assembly  and  leaders.  The  assembly  comprised  all 
nobles  and  all  freemen  who  could  bear  arms.  It  met 
once  a  month,  usually  at  the  time  of  the  full  moon.     The 


>  "On  the  field  of  l)attle  it  was  shameful  for  the  prince  to  be  outdone 
in  courage,  shameful  for  the  band  of  companions  to  be  unequal  in  cour- 
age to  their  prince." 


THE   GERMANS  327 

assembly  considered  all  public  questions  and  chose  its 
own  leaders.  ''  The  speakers  are  heard  more  because  of 
their  ability  to  persuade  than  because  of  their  power  to 
command.  If  the  speeches  are  displeasing  to  the  people, 
they  reject  them  with  murmurs ;  if  they  are  pleasing, 
they  applaud  by  clashing  their  weapons  together,  which 
is  the  kind  of  applause  most  highly  esteemed." 

416.  How   the    Germans    used   Private    Vengeance.  —   Right  of 
Among  the  earlv  Germans,  and  to  some  extent  in  later  P^vate 

1  •""        1  can  •    1       >>      1  •  vengeance 

times,  there  existed  a  law  oi  nst-right,  that  is,  the  and  money 
right  of  personal  vengeance.  If  a  man  killed  another,  the  P^y^^ei^*- 
family  of  the  second  man  took  up  the  quarrel  and  any 
one  of  them  might  murder  the  assassin.  In  later  times 
a  duel,  or  v/ager  of  battle,  was  used  to  decide  whether  the 
accuser  or  the  accused  was  right.  This  appealed  to  the 
German  idea  of  war  as  a  final  means  of  deciding  all  impor- 
tant interests  in  life.  On  the  other  hand  the  family  of  the 
injured  man,  even  in  the  case  of  murder,  might  accept  a 
payment  of  horses  or  cattle  or  some  other  property  in  full 
satisfaction  of  the  offence. 

417.  Trial  by  Compurgation.  —  If  a  person  accused  of  Cases  de- 
crime  was  brought  before  the  assembly,  the  accused  man  ^"^^^  ^^ 
was  likely  to  be  set  free,  if  a  sufficient  number  of  his  by"com- 
friends  would  swear  in  his  favor.     These  were  not  wit-  purgation." 
nesses,  and  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the  accused  was  not 
considered.     If  many  of  his  friends  stood  by  him,  he  was 
acquitted,  even  if  he  really  was  guilty.     If  they  failed 

to  stand  by  him,  he  was  convicted,  even  if  he  was  inno- 
cent. The  Germans  had  great  faith  that  the  gods  would 
help  an  innocent  man  through  his  friends,  and  would  desert 
a  man  who  was  guilty. 

418.  Ordeals.  —  Among    the     early     Germans    many  The  ordeal 
offenders  were  tried   in  still   different  ways,  which  were  as  an  appeal 

•         1  •  1  1  f  1     1  mi  *°    ^^^    gods 

used  extensively  even  m  the  later  feudal  age.     Ihese  to  decide  a 
methods  were  called  ordeals  and  were  appeals  to  the  dispute. 


328 


THE   GERMANS 


Some  im- 
portant 
forms  of 
ordeal  that 
survived 
to  the 
feudal  age. 


The  chief 
deities  of 
the  primi- 
tive Ger- 
mans. 


gods,  or  later  to  the  Christian's  God,  to  decide  the  case. 
The  accused  man  was  obHged  to  undergo  the  ordeal  to 
prove  his  guilt  or  innocence.  Sometimes  the  accuser 
also  was  forced  to  submit  to  the  ordeal  to  prove  that  he 
had  not  been  unfair  in  the  charge  that  he  had  made. 

One  of  the  common  forms  of  ordeal  was  trial  by  fire. 
If  the  person  passed  through  the  fire  unharmed,  he  was 
innocent.  Another  was  trial  by  some  hot  substance, 
as  boiling  water  or  hot  iron.  If  the  victim  was  injured 
by  holding  his  arm  in  boiling  water  or  by  carrying  a  hot 
iron  bar  a  certain  distance,  it  proved  that  the  gods  con- 
sidered him  guilty.  Still  another  ordeal  consisted  in 
throwing  the  accused  into  a  pond  or  river.  If  he  sank, 
he  was  innocent,  although,  as  he  was  bound  hand  and  foot, 
the  proof  did  him  very  little  good.  These  methods  which 
survived  so  many  centuries  show  us  what  crude  and 
barbaric  ideas  of  justice  prevailed  among  the  Germans. 

419.  The  Religion  of  the  Germans.  —  The  Germans 
had  a  rather  primitive  religion  before  they  were  converted 
to  Christianity.  We  know  comparatively  little  about  this 
rehgion,  because  almost  all  of  the  Germans  became  Chris- 
tians, in  name  at  least,  before  they  invaded  the  Roman 
empire.  They  had  two  great  gods  of  the  heavens.  Thor 
was  represented  as  the  thunder-god,  and  carried  with  him 
a  great  hammer,  with  which  he  struck.  Wooden  represented 
the  grandeur  of  the  heavens  and  was  the  god  of  war.  He 
was  aided  by  fleet  and  beautiful  spirit-maidens,  called 
Valkyries.  The  val-kyr'ies  rode  abroad  on  their  swift  steeds 
(the  clouds).  They  snatched  dying  warriors  from  the  field 
of  battle  and  carried  them  over  the  rainl)ow  l)ridge  Bifrost 
to  Val-hal'la,  the  hall  of  slain  heroes.  Here  the  valkyries 
waited  on  these  fortunate  warriors  in  glorious  feasts,  and 
here  the  heroes  daily  renewed  combats  at  arms  from  whose 
wounds  they  quickly  recovered.  One  of  the  chief  goddesses 
of  the  Germans,  Frei/a,  looked  after  the  home  and  the 


THE   TEUTONIC  KINGDOMS 


329 


crops.     From  the  names  of  these  three  deities  we  get  the 
names  of  three  days  of  our  week. 

The  Germans  made  sacrifices  to  their  gods  and  goddesses,   Religious 
accompanying  the  sacrifice  by  a  feast  that  lasted  as  long  P^^^^ices 
as  there  was  liquor  to  drink.     They  worshipped  in  groves  of  the 
or  in  other  out-of-door  places,  and  not  in  temples  built  Germans, 
with  human  hands.     As  Valhalla  shows,  they  had  an  idea 
that  at  least  warriors  might  become  immortal. 


The  Teutonic  Kingdoms 

420.  The  Invasions  of  the  Goths.  —  In  the  year  376  a.d. 
the  Goths  crossed  the  Danube  River,  and  the  great  migration 
of  the  Germans  began.  This  movement  was  due  to  the 
pressure  of  the  Huns  on  the  Os'tro-goths  (East  Goths) 
in  southern  Russia.  The  East  Goths  pressed  upon  the 
West  Goths  (Vis'i-goths),  and  the  latter  pressed  into  the 
Roman  empire.  Until  the  death  of  Theodosius  the  Great 
the  Goths  had  done  comparatively  little  damage. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Theodosius,  the  West  Goths, 
under  their  young,  energetic  king,  Al'a-ric,  moved  down 
into  Greece  and  later  into  Italy.  Their  advance  was 
checked  by  an  able  German  of  gigantic  size,  Stil'i-cho, 
of  the  tribe  of  Vandals.  Had  not  Stilicho  been  murdered 
by  his  jealous  emperor,  Alaric  would  never  have  been 
able  to  reach  Rome.  As  it  was,  Rome  was  captured  and 
sacked  (410  a.d.).  Upon  Alaric's  death,  soon  after  this 
event,  the  Visigoths  moved  into  Spain,  where  they  estab- 
lished the  first  of  the  Germanic  kingdoms  in  the  Roman 
empire. 

421.  Theodoric,  the  Ostrogoth.  —  Later  emperors  used 
German  leaders  like  Stilicho  to  fight  the  barbarians.  The 
ablest  of  these  leaders  was  The-od'o-ric  the  Ostrogoth, 
who  was  authorized  by  the  emperor  to  drive  the  barbarians 
out  of  Italy.     Theodoric  did  this  by  making  a  treaty  with 


The  Goths 
cross  the 
Danube 
River, 
376  A.D. 


The  mi- 
grations of 
the  West 
Goths  in 
Greece, 
Italy  and 
Spain. 


Theodoric 

conquers 

Italy. 


330 


TllK   CJKUMAXS 


The  groat 

Romanized 

German 

kingdom 

of  Theod- 

oric. 


Invasions 
by  way  of 
the  Rhine 
River 


his  chief  opponent,  O-do-a'cer.  Afterward  Theodoric 
assassinated  Odoacer  with  his  own  hand  at  a  banquet. 
This  odious  crime  left  a  stain  on  the  career  of  the  best 
and  ablest  of  the  German  leaders. 

Theodoric  estal)lished  in  Italy  and  in  Ill\'ria  a  large 
Ostrogothic  kingdom.  Theodoric  tried  to  unite  the  Romans 
and  the  Goths,  keeping  many  of  the  old  Roman  municipal 
institutions,   such   as   the  senate.     He    made   laws   that 


THF:  GER3IAN 

MIGRATIONS 

(Ordinary  type  shows  original 
home:  capitals  final  home.) 


::.■■■... lU 


were  similar  to  those  of  the  Romans,  rebuilt  roads  and  re- 
drained  swamps,  thus  restoring  the  agricultural  prosperity 
of  the  early  empire.  He  encouraged  art  and  literature, 
was  tolerant  of  other  religious  faiths  than  his  own,  and 
in  general  brought  to  his  kingdom  ])ea('e  and  ])rosperity. 
422.  Invasion  by  Way  of  the  River  Rhine.  —  While 
the  \'isigoths  and  Ostrogoths  were  crossing  the  Danube 
and  occupying  southern  Europe,  other  German  tribes, 


THE  TEUTONIC   KINGDOMS  331 

more  barbarous  than  those,  were  crossing  the  Rhine  or 
the  North  Sea  and  occupying  the  western  provinces.  One 
of  the  earhest  of  these  Rhine  invaders  was  the  tribe  of 
Van'dals  that  finally  crossed  into  Africa  and  afterward 
(455  A.D.)  sacked  Rome  (§  405).  Another  was  the  tribe 
of  Bur-gun' di-ans  that  settled  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  what  is  now  France.  A  third  was  the  tribe  of  Franks. 
They  located  in  northern  France  and  in  western  Germany. 

423.  Anglo-Saxon  Invasion  of  Britain.  —  Some  of   the  Conquests 
invaders  crossed  from  northern  Germany  by  water  into  *^^  ^*}^ 

.  Angles  and 

Britain.  In  449  a.d.  the  earhest  of  these  Angles  and  Saxonsin 
Saxons  landed  on  the  coast  south  of  London.  Within  a  Britain, 
few  years  most  of  the  southern  part  of  England  was  oc- 
cupied by  Saxons  and  most  of  the  eastern  and  central 
parts  of  the  country  were  held  by  the  Angles.  These 
people  drove  the  Britons  back  into  Wales  and  Scotland, 
or  subdued  the  older  peoples.  In  time  the  conqueror  and 
the  conquered  intermarried,  so  that  the  English  race  of 
the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  was  Briton  as  well  as 
Anglo-Saxon. 

424.  Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks.  —  The  Germanic  race  Clovis 
that  had  the  largest  share  in  the  later  history  of  western  "Yf  k^       " 
Europe  before  850  a.d.  was  that  of  the  Franks.     Like  most   of  ah  the 
of  the  other  German  tribes,  the  Franks  were  at  first  divided   ^^^"^^• 
into  many  small  tribes,  each  of  which  had  its  prince  or  king. 

One  of  these  petty  kings,  Clo'vis,  proceeded  to  conquer  the 
kings  of  near-by  Frankish  tribes,  using  assassination  and 
other  means  to  rid  himself  of  his  rivals.  He  finally  made 
himself  king  of  all  the  Franks.^ 

In  order  to  get  the  help  of  the  God  of  the  Christians, 

1  At  one  time,  in  Sois-sons',  the  soldiers  were  distributing  the  booty. 
•  There  was  a  very  beautiful  vase  which  the  Church  claimed.  Clovis  de- 
manded the  vase  for  himself  so  that  he  might  give  it  back  to  its  owners, 
but  a  soldier  struck  it.  Clovis  gave  it  back  to  the  Church,  and  the  next 
year,  after  a  quarrel  with  the  soldier,  cleft  the  latter' s  head  with  his  axe, 
saying,  "Thus you  did  to  the  vase  at  Soissons." 


332 


TITK   GERMANS 


Clovis  the 
Catholic 
conquers 
his  Ariaii 
neighbors. 


Clovis  was  baptized  into  the  Church  of  his  wife,  who  was 
a  Roman  Catholic.  As  practically  all  of  the  other  Ger- 
mans of  the  West  were  Arians  (§  403),  Clovis  now  had 
the  support  of  the  Roman  Church  in  his  campaigns  against 
the  Burgundians  and  the  Visigoths  in  southern  France. 
As  he  was  a  man  of  great  ability,  he  succeeded  in  con- 
quering these  enemies  and  extended  his  dominions  until 
they  covered  most  of  Gaul.^  The  successors  of  Clovis 
did  not  hold  this  Frankish  kingdom  together,  but  divided 
it  into  many  smaller  kingdoms.  They  were  called  Mer-o- 
vin'gi-an  kings  and  were  popularly  known  as  the  ''  do- 
nothing  kings." 


The  in- 
vaders took 
part  of 
each  estate 
hut  left 
the  rest  to 
the  people. 


The  Ger- 
mans added 
new  blood 
and  after- 
ward inter- 
married 
with  the 
"  Romans." 


Fusion  of  Roman  and  Teuton 

425.  Nature  of  the  Invasions.  —  These  German  mi- 
grations were  migrations  of  whole  peoples,  frequently  num- 
bering several  hundred  thousand  men,  women  and  children. 
As  they  were  seeking  for  permanent  homes,  they  did  not 
destroy  the  cities  and  estates  of  the  Romans,  although  they 
seized  anything  that  pleased  their  fancy.  The  people  of 
the  empire  were  neither  driven  out  nor  put  to  death,  except 
in  a  few  cases.  The  Germans  simply  came  in,  took  pos- 
session of  the  best,  and  left  the  rest  to  the  people.'^  The 
farther  north  we  go,  the  more  thorough  do  we  find  the 
conquests,  for  the  northern  barbarians  were  less  civilized 
than  their  southern  kinsmen. 

426.  Fusion  of  the  Races.  —  In  general  the  original 
inhabitants  greatly  outnumbered  the  German  invaders, 
although  the  Germans  held  all  of  the  high  positions  and 

*  Clovis  died  a  few  years  before  Theodoric  the  Ostrogoth,  so  that  he 
was  practically  a  contemporary  of  Theodoric.  He  was  like  Theodoric 
in  that  he  was  able,  but  Clovis  remained  to  the  end  a  cruel,  bloodthirsty 
barbarian. 

2  The  invaders  usually  took  from  one  half  to  two  thirds  of  each  estate 
and  loft  the  balance  to  the  former  owners. 


FUSION   OF   ROMAN  AND   TEUTON  333 

furnished  practically  all  of  the  soldiers.  The  Germans 
were  a  younger  and  more  energetic  race.  The  older  people 
had  become  sluggish  and  had  lost  their  ambition.  They 
needed  the  infusion  of  new  blood  which  the  Germans 
added.  In  the  course  of  a  few  centuries  the  intermar- 
riage of  the  invaders  and  the  people  of  the  empire  left  few 
traces  of  the  two  original  races,  for  over  almost  all  of 
western  Europe  they  had  become  one  people.  The  fusion 
of  the  races  was  made  much  easier  by  the  great  expansion 
of  the  Christian  or  Catholic  Church  at  this  time  (§§  431- 
436). 

427.  Government.  —  The  German  kingdoms  combined  Attempt  of 
Roman  and  German  ideas  of  government.     The  German  *^®  ^^ 
tribal  chief  became  the  king  of  a  territory,  in  imitation  copy  the 
of  the  Roman  idea  of  emperor.     The  Germans  tried  to  ^^^^^^ 
surround  their  kings  with  officials  who  had  the  same  titles  govern- 
as  the  emperor's  assistants.     There  were  courts  of  law  "^^^^' 
after  Roman  models,  although  they  administered  justice 

after  the  German  fashion  rather  than  in  accordance  with 
the  Roman  law. 

Many  things  made  it  difficult  for  the  Germans  to  follow  Predomi- 
the  forms  of  Roman  government.     The  invaders  did  not  J\^^^^  ° 

.    .  .  .  .    .  (jrermaii 

like  to  settle  in  cities,  and  had  no  interest  in  municipal  ideas  in 
government.     In  consequence  cities  declined  more  than  J^^/eu- 
they  had  done  under  the  later  Roman  empire.     The  Ger-  kingdoms. 
mans  divided  their  kingdoms  among  the  sons  of  the  king. 
In  this  way  the  kingdoms  lost  all  of  the  dignity  and  author- 
ity that  the  earlier  Romanized  kingdoms  had.     On  the  other 
hand,  the  Germans  abandoned  the  township  assemblies, 
except  in  England  or  in  other  places  a  long  way  from 
Roman  influence. 

428.  The  Law  of  the  Germanic  Kingdoms.  —  The  law 
of 'western  Europe  for  several  centuries  after  the  invasions 
was  the  German  law  (§§  416-418),  modified  by  Roman 
forms  and  courts.     The  Germans  left  to  each  conquered 


334 


TIIK    (IKHMAXS 


The  Ger- 
mans per- 
mitted 
local  op- 
tion in  the 
trial  of 
cases. 


The  Ger- 
man law 
codes  and 
their  final 
replace- 
ment by 
the  Roman 
law. 


Continued 
use  of 
Latin  in 
religion  and 
in  other 
ways. 


Great  in- 
fluence of 
Latin  in 
modern 
languages. 


people  the  right  to  l)e  judged  under  its  own  laws.  This 
was  due  to  their  intense  belief  in  the  right  of  an  individual 
or  a  tribe  to  do  as  it  pleased.  In  a  dispute  between  a 
native  and  an  invader,  they  used  a  law  combining  Roman 
and  German  law,  and  the  cases  were  tried  in  special  tri- 
bunals. In  imitation  of  the  Roman  codes  of  law,  more- 
over, the  German  tribes  allowed  Roman  lawyers  to  make 
codes  of  the  laws  of  the  German  tribes,  during  the  period 
following  the  invasions. 

These  codes  naturally  gave  a  great  deal  of  attention  to 
the  liberty  of  the  individual  and  the  privilege  of  the  in- 
dividual to  protect  his  rights  by  the  peculiar  usages  of 
the  Germans,  such  as  the  wager  of  battle,  and  ordeals 
(§418).  In  the  northern  part  of  Europe  laws  were  little 
influenced  by  Rome.  After  a  few  centuries,  however, 
when  the  older  Roman  law  of  Justinian  (§  410)  was  studied 
in  the  new  universities,  the  Teutonic  codes  were  replaced 
almost  entirely  by  the  Roman  law  in  all  of  the  countries 
that  had  Romance  languages. 

429.  Language.  —  As  all  of  the  countries  of  the  western 
empire  had  used  Latin,  that  language  continued  to  be 
the  language  of  the  educated  people,  of  the  Church,  and, 
to  some  extent,  of  the  courts.  As  each  tribe  had  its  own 
dialect,  Latin  was  a  very  convenient  means  of  communi- 
cation. Even  in  Germany  and  in  England  this  universal 
language  was  used  a  little,  and  in  other  countries  it  was 
used  extensively. 

The  new  languages,  as  we  noticed  (§  386),  were  forms 
of  Latin.  The  Italian  language  was  so  much  })etter  than 
that  of  the  invaders  that  only  a  few  German  words  found 
their  way  into  Italian.  French  was  not  greatly  influenced 
by  the  Germans,  as  only  a  lew  hundred  German  expres- 
sions were  added  to  the  French  language.  Even  English 
is  more  Latin  than  German,  if  we  compare  the  number  of 
words  of  Latin  and  German  origin. 


FUSION   OF  ROMAN   AND  TEUTON  335 

430    The    General    Civilization   of   the   Teutonic   King-   Roman  cul- 
doms.  —  The  German  invasions  did  not  destroy  the  cities   ^^^^  gradu- 

"^  _  ally  disap- 

and  the  civihzation  of  the  empire,  yet  the  Germans  failed  pears, 
to  preserve  most  of  that  civilization.  The  Germans  were 
like  rough,  uneducated  children,  who  cared  nothing  for 
the  art,  the  culture  and  the  learning  of  the  empire.  The 
result  was  that  the  schools  were  no  longer  well  attended, 
no  new  fine  buildings  were  constructed,  the  roads,  covered 
with  dirt,  became  unfit  for  use,  and  the  people  settled  back 
into  a  cruder,  more  primitive  way  of  living. 

On  account  of  the  interest  of  the  Germans  in  personal   Disorder 
independence,  a  man  was  allowed  to  take  the  law  into  his  P^eva^^ 

,  ...  ^i^d  ClVll- 

own  hands  and  punish  a  person  who  had  injured  him.  ization 
So  disorder  was  common  and  little  attempt  was  made  to  ^^^^^y^- 
protect  merchants  or  travellers.  The  armies  that  should 
have  defended  the  cities  became  mere  bands  of  plunderers, 
when  there  was  no  need  for  real  warfare.  Churchmen 
naturally  were  despised  by  warriors,  church  buildings  fell 
into  decay  and  the  Church  had  less  interest  than  it  should 
have  had  in  the  spiritual  welfare  of  its  members. 

The  old  Roman  civilization  was  like  a  forest  of  old  The  old 
trees,  full  of  dead  or  decaying  wood.     Like  storms  the  ^^^^^^  ^"^^ 

\  .       .  ^he  new. 

invasions  swept  over  these  forests,  stripping  leaves  from 
trees,  breaking  branches,  and  throwing  trunks  prostrate. 
At  the  same  time  they  brought  in  the  seeds  of  new  trees 
and  wild  plants.  A  few  old  trees  remained  standing, 
scarred  and  broken.  For  a  time  the  new  growth  seemed 
like  a  jungle,  choked  with  weeds.  Yet  out  of  this  jungle, 
after  centuries  of  development,  there  was  to  develop  a 
finer  forest  than  the  old,  for  the  best  trees  of  the  old 
forest  were  to  be  reproduced  in  the  new. 


33G 


THE   GERMANS 


The  Christian  Church 


Civilizing 
work  of 
the  Church. 


Organiza- 
tion of  a 
religious 
empire  with 
the  pope 
at  the 
head. 


Spiritual 
power  of 
the  pope. 


431.  Importance  of  the  Church.  —  The  fusion  of  German 
and  Teuton  was  aided,  and  the  unity  of  Western  Europe 
was  preserved,  largely  by  the  Christian  Church.  The 
Church  was  in  fact  the  great  civilizing  power  of  this  period. 
The  Church  not  only  stood  for  righteousness,  but  it  stood 
for  law  and  order.  It  preached  industry  and  brotherly 
love.  Its  monks  tilled  the  soil,  planted  crops  and  per- 
suaded others  to  do  the  same.  Largely  through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Church  slavery  was  replaced  by  serfdom, 
the  serf  being  attached  to  the  land  so  that  he  could  not  be 
bought  or  sold  except,  with  the  land. 

The  Church  sent  out  missionaries.  It  converted  prac- 
tically all  of  the  people  of  western  Europe  to  the  orthodox 
faith.  In  this  way  it  unified  the  people  of  western  Europe 
and  made  them  have  at  least  one  great  interest  in  com- 
mon—  their  religion.  But  it  did  more  than  that.  It 
began  to  organize  this  great  body  of  Christian  believers 
into  a  religious  empire  with  the  bishop  of  Rome  (the  pope) 
at  the  head.  This  was  not  done  in  a  short  time,  and  it 
was  not  perfected  until  several  centuries  later.  Of 
course  many  of  the  churchmen  of  this  period  were  not 
highly  civilized.  Many  were  selfish,  ambitious  or  un- 
scrupulous, and  the  Church  was  sometimes  more  interested 
in  bringing  people  into  the  Church  then  in  making  people 
better. 

432.  Growth  of  the  Papacy.  —  From  a  very  early  day 
the  bishop  of  Rome  had  been  looked  upon  as  one  of  the 
most  important  bishops  of  the  Church.  Rome  was  still 
the  capital  of  the  empire  and  by  far  the  largest  city  of 
the  West.  The  Church  at  Rome  was  believed  also  to  have 
been  founded  by  Peter,  who  had  received  special  authority 
from  Christ  and  had  granted  it  to  his  successors.  Because 
these  bishops,  or  popes,  as  we  may  call  them  now,  claimed 


THE   CHRISTIAN   CHURCH  337 

to  have  universal  oversight  of  the  other  bishops  and 
churches,  we  shall  speak  of  the  Church  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  bishop  of  Rome  as  the  Catholic,  or  universal, 
Church. 

During  the  German  invasions  the  bishops  of  Rome  had  Temporal 
taken  charge  of  the  defence  of  the  city.     They  had  nego-  f^wer  of 

^  ./  vf  o         ^]^g  papacy. 

tiated  with  the  barbarian  leaders.  The  greatest  of  these 
popes,  Leo  the  Great,  was  recognized  by  the  emperor 
at  Constantinople  as  the  head  of  the  Church.  In  addi- 
tion to  his  spiritual  authority  and  his  power  as  civil  ruler 
in  time  of  danger,  the  pope  began  to  acquire  land  over 
which  he  ruled.  The  combination  of  civil  powers  and  the 
government  of  papal  estates  is  called  the  temporal  power 
of  the  papacy,  and  the  term  should  be  remembered,  for 
in  time  it  became  very  great. 

433.  The  Work  of  the  Monks.  —  During  this  period  of  St.  Bene- 
confusion  a  great  many  holy  men  and  women  desired  to  fofio^grg  "^ 
withdraw  from  the  world  in  order  that  they  might  be- 
come more  religious.  They  lived  in  monasteries,  most 
of  which  followed  the  rules  laid  down  by  St.  Benedict. 
Benedict  believed  that  monks  should  work  with  their 
hands.  Seven  hours  for  labor,  seven  hours  for  prayer, 
seven  hours  for  sleep,  was  the  rule  in  many  monasteries. 
The  monks  reclaimed  the  fields  that  were  going  to  waste 
and  taught  the  people  the  dignity  of  labor.  They  wel- 
comed to  their  midst  all  who  were  sick  of  the  conflict  with 
sin  and  the  world.  They  practised  self-denial,  living  in 
comfortless  cells  on  a  few  crusts  and  often  wearing  hair 
shirts. 

Although  they  lived  apart  from  the  world,  the  example  What  the 
of  the  monks  (their  industry  and  their  self-denial)  had  a  ?^T^^!u^^ 
much  greater  influence  on  the  people  than  their  preaching  people. 
could  have  had.     Yet  they  helped  the  people  directly. 
Beggars  were  fed  in  great  numbers  at  the  gates  of  the 
monasteries.     Monasteries  entertained  most  of  the  trav- 


338 


THE   GERMANS 


Conversion 
of  the 
Goths  and 
other 
tribes  to 
the  Arian 
faith. 


Gaul  be- 
comes 
Catholic. 


Conversion 
of  the 
Irish  and 
the  Anglo- 
Saxons. 


Britain 
becomes 
Roman 
Catholic. 


oilers,  for  there  were  no  other  inns,  and  the  monks  or  nuns 
had  charge  of  a  large  number  of  schools. 

434.  Acceptance  of  Catholic  Leadership  in  Italy  and 
Gaul.  —  The  po]w  and  the  monks  were  very  anxious  to 
convert  all  of  the  Germans  to  the  Catholic,  or  orthodox, 
faith.  Less  than  a  half  century  before  the  Goths  crossed 
the  Danube,  they  had  been  converted  to  the  Arian  faith 
by  Ul'fi-las,  who  had  translated  the  Bible  into  the 
language  of  the  Goths.  These  Arian  Christians  naturally 
had  a  greater  respect  for  the  rights  of  the  Church 
in  the  empire  than  heathen  would  have  had  and  were 
greatly  influenced  by  the  bishops  of  the  cities.  Gradually 
they  came  to  recognize  the  leadership  of  the  pope  at 
Rome. 

The  conversion  of  the  Franks  to  the  Catholic  faith  and 
the  conquest  of  all  Gaul  by  the  Franks  helped  to  unite  all 
of  the  Christians  of  Gaul,  for  the  older  inhabitants  were 
Catholics. 

435.  The  Church  in  Britain.  —  In  Britain  the  Christian 
faith  survived  among  Britons  in  the  north,  who  had  several 
famous  monasteries.  Several  missionaries  were  sent  out 
from  these  monasteries,  among  them  St.  Patrick  to  the 
Irish  and  several  to  the  tribes  of  Germany.  The  con- 
version of  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  Britain  was  due,  however, 
to  a  Catholic  monk,  Au'gus-tine.  One  day  the  great  pope, 
Gregory  the  Great,  saw  some  beautiful  boy  slaves  in  Rome. 
He  asked  who  they  were.  He  was  told  that  they  were 
Angles,  and  heathen.  He  rephed  that  they  were  not 
Angles  but  angels,  and  he  sent  out  Augustine  to  Britain 
to  convert  them. 

Later  the  British  Christians  from  the  north  and  the 
Roman  Catholics  from  the  south  of  the  island  clashed, 
because  each  wished  to  manage  the  religious  affairs  of  the 
island.  Fortunately  it  was  decided  that  the  Roman 
Church  should  control  English  religious  affairs,  and  Eng- 


THE   MOHAMMEDANS  339 

land  was  brought  into  close  contact  with  the  civilization  of 
the  continent  of  Europe. 

436.  Boniface  in  Germany.  —  A  century  after  the  con-   The  people 
version  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  by  Augustine,  an  Englishman,   ^^J^^^j^g. 
Bon'i-face,  became  the  apostle  of  the  Church  to  the  Ger-  come 
man  tribes  east  of  the  Rhine  River.     Boniface  made  many  Catholics, 
converts,  and  his  work  was  continued  by  Charlemagne. 

After  the  time  of  Boniface  practically  all  of  the  people  of 
western  Europe  were  Roman  Catholics,  acknowledging 
the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  and  bound  together  as  mem- 
bers of  the  great  Church  which  we  call  Roman  Catholic, 
or  Universal. 

The  Mohammedans 

437.  Mohammed.  —  In  the  seventh  century  of  our  era   Mohammed 
there  arose  in  Arabia,  and  spread  in  all  directions,  a  new 
religion.     The  founder  of  this  religion  was  Mohammed, 

a  native  of  Mecca  in' Arabia.  At  about  the  age  of  forty  he 
began  to  teach  a  new  doctrine.^ 

There  was  no  national  government  in  Arabia  at  this  The  Hegira 
time,  and  the  numerous  tribes  had  very  primitive  religions   (622)  and 

'  .  .   .  ,  "^  .  '^  spread  of 

in  which  spirits  and  idols  played  a  considerable  part.  As  islam. 
Mohammed  preached  against  idols  and  was  feared  by 
the  people  of  Mecca,  he  was  driven  forth  from  that  city 
in  622  A.D.  This  flight  from  Mecca  to  Medina  is  called 
the  He-gi'ra.  From  this  date  the  Mohammedans  reckon 
time,  as  we  do  from  the  birth  of  Christ.  After  the  Hegira, 
Mohammed  made  many  powerful  friends,  and  his  religion 
became  the  dominant  faith  of  Arabia  before  his  death,  ten 
years  later. 

438.  Islam.  —  The  doctrines  of  the  Mohammedans 
are  contained  in  a  book  of  sacred  writings  called  tlie  Ko'ran. 

'  Mohammed  was  a  poor  man  until  he  married  a  rich  widow.  He 
travelled  in  looking  after  his  wife's  business,  and  was  able  to  devote  a 
great  deal  of  time  to  religious  meditation. 


340 


TIIK   GKRMANS 


A   TIIOIK)- 

thci^rtic 
faith  with 
a  belief  in 
a  future 
hfe. 


Ceremonies 
and  prac- 
tices per- 
mitted or 
forbidden 
by  Moham- 
medanism. 


Early  con- 
(luests  in 
the  East. 


Conquests 
in  .\sia 
Minor,  in 
Africa  and 
in  Sicily. 


The  faith  itself  is  known  as  In' lam.  Islam  is  a  monothe- 
istic faith.  ''  Great  is  Al'lah,"  the  only  God,  and  "  there 
is  one  God  and  Mohammed  is  liis  prophet  "  are  still  the 
mottoes  of  the  Mohammedan  devotees.  The  Mohamme- 
dan is  a  fatalist,  that  is,  he  believes  that  whatever  is  was 
ordained  as  his  fate,  and  he  cannot  change  it.  Therefore 
he  does  not  tr}^  to  do  so.  The  early  followers  of  Mo- 
hammed thought  that,  if  they  died  fighting  for  their  faith, 
they  would  be  sure  of  paradise,  and  their  victims  also 
would  be  saved  from  damnation.  So  they  fought  with 
remarkable  zeal  for  Islam,  since  paradise  was  wtU  worth 
striving  for,  with  its  attractive  gardens,  its  feasts  and  its 
beautiful  maidens. 

Mohammedanism  w^as  very  exacting  in  its  demand  for 
prayers,  which  the  faithful  to-day  repeat  with  their  faces 
toward  Mecca ;  for  its  insistence  upon  at  least  one  pil- 
grimage to  the  holy  city,  Mecca ;  and  for  its  periods  of 
fasting.  It  prohibited  the  eating  of  pig's  flesh  and  the 
drinking  of  intoxicating  liquors.  In  general  it  demanded 
a  much  higher  standard  of  conduct  than  its  followers  had 
known,  although  it  permitted  polygamy.  It  especially 
required  the  giving  of  alms  to  the  poor. 

439.  The  Spread  of  Islam.  —  The  religious  enthusiasm 
of  the  Moslems  and  the  assurance  of  salvation  for  those 
that  died  in  battle  caused  them  to  make  converts  in  all 
parts  of  the  East.  Syria,  Egypt  and  Persia  were  added 
to  Arabia  within  a  few  years  after  the  death  of  the  Prophet. 
Then  missionary  effort  ceased. 

A  half  century  later  the  Mohammedans  began  another 
great  crusading  movement.  Asia  Minor  was  overrun,  and 
for  a  year  the  hosts  of  Islam  besieged  the  strong  walls  of 
the  capital  of  the  Eastern  empire,  Constantinople.  More 
than  one  hundred  thousand  Mohammedans  lost  their 
lives  in  this  terrible  siege  before  the  Moslems  withdrew, 
unsuccessful.     After  the  conquest  of  northern  Africa,  from 


THE   MOHAMMEDANS  341 

Carthage  to  Gibraltar,  the  Saracens  (as  we  shall  call  most 
of  the  Mohammedans  hereafter)    moved   against   Sicily 
which  they  conquered. 

440.  The   Saracens  in   Spain  and   Gaul.  —  Meanwhile   Moslem 
(711  A.D.)   the   Saracens   crossed   at   Gibraltar   and   con-  ^'^nquest 

^  of  Spain. 

quered  the  Visigothic  kingdom  in  Spain.  Some  Chris- 
tians were  driven  back  into  the  mountains  of  northern 
Spain,  where  they  estabhshed  petty  governments  of  their 
own.  The  older  inhabitants  of  the  Spanish  peninsula 
were  perfectly  willing  to  exchange  the  rule  of  the  Visi- 
goths for  that  of  the  Saracens,  since  the  latter  allowed 
them  their  Catholic  faith  and  gave  them  a  better  govern- 
ment than  the  German  conquerors  had. 

The  Saracens  did  not  stop  at  the  Pyrenees  mountains  Germans 
but  invaded  Gaul.     Here,  Charles  Martel,  the  powerful  ^^^\ 
mayor  of  the  palace  of  the  "  do-nothing  "  Merovingian  Martel 
king  (§  442),  gathered  a  great  army  of  Franks,  Burgun-  u^^^i^^^f 
dians,  Visigoths  and  other  German  peoples.  Tours  (732). 

441.  The  Saracens  are  Checked  at  Tours.  —  At  Tours   The  Sara- 
(Toor),  near  the  Loire  River,  732  a.d.,  the  Saracens  threw  ^ens  mvade 
their  fleet  horsemen  against  the  solid  wall  of  German 
infantry.     Time    after   time   they   swooped   down   upon 

the  clumsy  but  courageous  Europeans.  Upon  that  solid 
wall  of  men  they  made  no  impression,  and,  when  night 
came,  they  withdrew.  So  in  the  West  as  well  as  in  the 
East  the  Saracen  advance  was  checked. 

The  victories  at  Constantinople  and  at  Tours,  only  a  Importance 
few  years   apart,   saved   Christendom  from  beins;  over-  ^?  ^}^^     , 

.  victory  at 

whelmed  by  Islam.  While  the  Saracens  were  more  civil-  Tours, 
ized  than  the  Franks  at  this  time,  they  represented  a 
religious  faith  whose  ideals  were  much  lower  than  those  of 
Christianity.  In  spite  of  their  brilliant  successes,  the 
Saracens  did  not  possess  the  ability  to  develop  a  high 
civilization.  So  it  was  a  great  day  in  the  history  of  the 
world  when  the  Cross  defeated  the  Crescent  at  Tours. 


342 


TTTE   ^,KR^^AXS 


The  Empire  of  the  Franks 


Rise  of  the 
great 
Frankish 
mayors  of 
the  palace. 


The  alli- 
ance of 
Pepin  the 
Short  and 
the  pope. 


Ability  and 
methods  of 
Charle- 
magne. 


442.  The  Early  "  Carolingians."  —  It  was  fortunate 
for  Christendom  that  tlie  Frankish  kingdoms  wore  united 
under  a  strong  ruler  at  this  time  of  danger.  Under  the 
Merovingian  kings,  the  Frankish  territories  were  held  by- 
many  kings,  no  one  of  whom  was  a  real  leader  or  ruler. 
The  real  ruler  of  Austrasia,  a  Frankish  kingdom  east  of 
Paris,  was  the  mayor  of  the  palace,  a  kind  of  prim.e  min- 
ister. One  of  these  mayors  had  made  himself  the  real 
ruler,  not  only  of  Austrasia,  but  of  all  the  Frankish  king- 
doms.^ His  son  was  the  Charles  whose  victory  at  Tours 
gave  him  the  title  of  Martel,  the  Hammer,  because  he 
struck  such  hard  blows.  The  rulers  of  the  house  of  Charles 
Mar-tel'  are  called  Car-o-lin'gians. 

443.  Pepin  the  Short.  —  The  son  of  Charles  Martel, 
Pep 'in  the  Short,  was  able  to  make  himself  even  more 
powerful  than  Charles  Martel  had  been.  He  finally  (752) 
deposed  the  king  and  made  himself  king  of  the  Franks. 
The  pope  consented  to  this,  saying  that  it  was  right  for 
the  one  who  held  the  power  to  be  called  king.  The  pope 
was  glad  to  do  this  because  he  wanted  the  help  of  the 
Franks  against  the  rude  Loml^ards  who  had  pushed  into 
northern  Italy,  and  w^ere  threatening  to  seize  the  lands 
and  destroy  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope.  So  Pepin 
punished  the  Lombards  and  gave  the  poj^e  new  lands, 
called  the  Donation  of  Pepin,  since  the  pope  had  helped 
him  to  be  king. 

444.  Charlemagne.  —  Pepin  was  succeeded  (768  a.d.)  by 
his  son  Charles,  or  Karl,  afterward  called  the  Great,  or 
Char-le-magne'.  Charlemagne  was  a  man  of  good  build 
and   imposing   appearance.     He  possessed   great   energy 


1  One  of  these  mayors  had  thought  it  would  be  a  good  plan  to  n)ako  his 
son  king,  as  his  royal  master  had  just  died.  The  nobles  thought  other- 
wise and  put  both  father  and  son  to  death. 


THE   EMPIRE    OF   THE   FRANKS  343 

and  was  a  conqueror,  a  statesman  and  a  patron  of  educa- 
tion and  the  arts.  He  had  friendly  relations  with  distant 
and  powerful  rulers,  such  as  the  pope,  the  eastern  em- 
peror and  the  great  caliph  at  Bagdad,  Haroun  al  Raschid. 
He  died  in  814  a.d. 

445.  Conquests   of   Charlemagne.  —  Charlemagne   first   Conquest 
proceeded  against  the  Lombards  in  Italy.     When  he  had   "^  northern 
conquered  them,  he  placed  upon  his  own  head  the  iron  the  Spanish 
crown  of  the  Lombards  and  added  northern  Italy  to  his  "^^^c^- 
kingdom.     He   invaded   Spain,    conquering  many   cities, 

most  of  which  the  Saracens  proceeded  to  regain  almost 
immediately.  As  a  '^  buffer  state  "  be  established  the 
Spanish  march,  or  mark,  beyond  the  Pyrenees  mountains. 
On  his  return  from  Spain,  the  rear  guard  of  his  army  was 
attacked  and  annihilated.  Afterward  the  hero  of  the 
rear  guard,  Roland,  was  made  famous  in  the  songs  of  the 
troubadours. 

On    the    east    Charlemagne    attacked    the    barbarous  charle- 
Saxons  and  Slavs.     Year  after  year  he  "  conquered  "  the  niagne 
Saxons,  only  to  have  them  rise  and  destroy  his  garrisons,   the  Saxons 
as  soon  as  he  withdrew.     After  many  years,  by  the  whole-  ^^^  drives 
sale  decapitation  of  the  leaders  and  the  breaking  up  of  siavs. 
bands  of  the  Saxons,  Charlemagne  forced  these  obstinate 
people  to  become  his  obedient  Christian  subjects.     Farther 
east  he  drove  back  invaders  and  made  the  inhabitants 
subject  to  him.     His  empire  therefore  extended  from  the 
Ebro  in  Spain  to  the  Elbe  in  German}',  and  from  a  point 
south  of  Rome  to  the  North  Sea. 

446.  The  Work  of  Charlemagne.  —  Charlemagne   was   Charle- 

a  good  ruler  for  this  wide  dominion.     Since  it  was  difficult  '"^gne's  use 
to  rule  such  a  great  area  directly,  he  selected  a  powerful  counts  and 
leader  for  each  county  and   gave  him   considerable   au-  ^^^^  '.  "."P^j 
thority.     These  leaders  were  called  counts.     The  position 
of  count  was  not  hereditary  in  Charlemagne's  time,  al- 
though it  afterward  became  so.     In  order  to  keep  the 


344 


THP]   GERMANS 


Assemblies 
and  educa- 
tion. 


counts  in  submission  Cliark'niagne  sent  out  every  year 
special  messengers  called  '*  mis'si  do-min'i-ci,"  who  re- 
ported what  the  counts  were  doing  and  acted  as  a  check 
on  them. 

In  the  making  of  laws  Charlemagne  consulted  both 
the  nobles  and  the  i)eople.  Every  May  a  great  assembly 
of  all  freemen  was  held,  called  a  May  field.  These  assem- 
blies, like  the  old  German  tribal  assemblies,  had  the  right 


Crowning 
of  Charle- 
magne as 
emperor. 


St.  Peter's  Church,  Early  Middle  Ages. 

to  approve  the  laws.  Charlemagne  established  schools 
and  gathered  about  himself  a  large  number  of  scholars 
and  writers. 

447.  Charlemagne  the  Emperor. — On  Christmas  day 
in  the  year  800  a.d.  Charlemagne  was  worshipping  in  the 
great  church  of  St.  Peter  in  Rome.  As  he  rose,  after  a 
few  moments  of  silent  prayer,  the  pope,  placing  on  his 
head  a  golden  crown,  proclaimed  him  emperor,  and  the 
multitude  shouted,  "  To  Charles  Augustus,  crowned  the 
great  and  peace-giving  Imperator  of  the  Romans,  be  life 
and  victory!  "     Charlemagne  claimed  to  be  the  successor 


THE   EMPIRE   OF  THE   FRANKS  345 

not  only  of  the  Caesars  but  ruler  of  the  eastern  Roman 
empire  as  well,  since  the  head  of  the  Eastern  empire  at 
this  time  was  a  woman. 

448.  The  Old  Empire  and  the  New.  —  The  old  Roman  The  empire 
empire  of  the  Caesars  had  included  most  of   the  civiUzed  ^J^^^ 
world.     It  was  a  Mediterranean  empire,  stretching  from 

the  Pillars  of  Hercules  to  the  borders  of  Persia.  Although 
it  included  hundreds  of  diverse  races  or  peoples,  it  had  a 
fairly  uniform  civilization  throughout  it's  length  and 
breadth.  The  eastern  half  used  one  language,  Greek ; 
the  western  half  spoke  Latin.  This  empire  of  the  Caesars 
had  great  cities,  carried  on  extensive  trade  —  not  only  by 
way  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  over  the  famous  Roman 
roads  —  and  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  culture  and 
wealth. 

The  new  empire  of  the  Germans  barely  touched  the  The  Ger- 
Mediterranean,  though  it  covered  most  of  western  Europe.  "^'^'\^^ 
Its  subjects  were  chiefly  of  one  race,  the  Teutonic,  but 
they  had  less  in  common  than  the  citizens  of  the  old  Roman 
empire.  They  spoke  hundreds  of  dialects  and  lived  a 
free,  independent,  out-door  life,  being  interested  in  hunt- 
ing and  warfare,  not  in  art  and  commerce.  Consequently 
the  centuries  after  Charlemagne  were  very  different  from 
those  after  Augustus,  and  Charlemagne's  empire  is  more 
closely  related  to  the  later  Holy  Roman  Empire  of  the 
German  nation  than  to  that  of  Roman  times. 

449.  Summary.  —  The  Germans  were  large,  blue-eyed,   Character- 
fierce-looking  blondes.     They  were  noted  for  their  inde-  f}^^"^  "^  ^^^^ 
pendence,  their   assemblies   of  freemen,  and   their  insti- 
tution of  "  companions."     They  were  brave,   and    they 
reverenced  women,  but  they  drank  to  excess.     Their  re- 
ligion was  a  religion  of  warriors.     They  thought  that  the 

gods  would  not  permit  a  guilty  man  to  escape,  so  they 
tried  an  accused  person  by  ordeals,  or  by  swearing  that 
they  had  faith  in  him.     They  claimed  the  right  to  avenge 


346 


THE  GERMANS 


German  in- 
vasions and 
kingdoms. 


Faith,  ex- 
pansion and 
defeat  of 
the  Mos- 
lems. 


The  work 
of  the 
Carolingian 
Franks. 


a  wrong  done  to  their  family,  l)ut  they  frequently  accepted 
a  payment,  greater  or  smaller,  according  to  the  rank  of 
the  injured  })erson  as  well  as  the  nature  of  the  offence,  in 
place  of  vengeance. 

The  German  invasions  })egan  when  the  Goths  crossed 
the  Danul^e  river  in  37()  a.u.  Under  Alaric  the  Visigoths 
invaded  Italy,  later  moving  on  into  Spain,  where  they 
established  a  kingdom.  The  Ostrogoths  followed  under 
Theodoric,  trying  to  unite  the  Teutons  and  the  Italians. 
The  Vandals,  Burgundians  and  Franks  crossed  the 
Rhine,  going,  however,  in  various  directions.  The  first 
crossed  into  Africa,  the  second  remained  in  southeastern 
Gaul,  and  the  last,  under  Clovis,  conquered  practically 
all  of  Gaul.     The  Angles  and  Saxons  came  to  Britain. 

Fortunately  the  invasions  were  over  and  the  western 
Germans  were  fairly  well  united  before  the  Saracens  in- 
vaded Gaul.  These  religious  followers  of  the  Arabian 
Mohammed  believed  in  one  God  and  a  future  life.  They 
prayed  and  gave  alms  religiously.  After  the  Hegira 
(622  A.D.)  the  faith  had  spread  within  less  than  a  century 
to  Persia,  to  the  gates  of  Constantinople,  and  into  Spain. 
At  Constantinople  the  Moslems  were  repulsed  and  at 
Tours  in  Gaul,  732  a.d.,  they  were  beaten  back  by  the 
western  Germans  under  Charles  Martel.  Thus  central 
Europe  was  saved  to  a  civilization  that  was  Roman, 
German  and  Christian. 

Charles  Martel  was  mayor  of  the  palace  of  all  the 
Franks.  His  son,  Pepin  the  Short,  aided  the  pope  against 
the  Lombards  and  in  return  was  recognized  as  king  of  the 
Franks.  His  grandson,  Charlemagne,  made  new  con- 
quests against  the  Lombards  in  Italy,  against  the  Sara- 
cens in  Spain  and  against  the  Saxons  and  Slavs  in  the  east. 
In  800  A.D.  he  was  crowned  emperor  of  the  west,  his  em- 
pire being  a  great  Germanic  kingdom  of  central-western 
Europe.     He  was  an  enlightened  and  able  ruler  and  a 


GERMANS  IN  WESTERN   EUROPE  347 

patron  of  education  and  the  arts.  With  Charlemagne 
ends  the  first  period  of  transition  from  Roman  to  modern 
times.  This  early  period  is  the  period  of  the  fusion  of 
the  Roman  and  the  German;  the  second  is  the  Feudal 
Age. 

CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE 
Western  Europe  The  Near  East 

146  B.C.  Destruction  of  Carthage        146  B.C.  End  of    Greek  independ- 
ence 
133-123  B.C.  The  Gracchi 

91-89  B.C.  Social  War  133  b.c.  Province  of  Asia 

88-82  B.C.   Marius  and  Sulla 

63  B.C.  Cicero  and  Catiline  67-63  b.c.  Pompey's  conquests 

60  B.C.  First  Triumvirate 

58-51  B.C.  Conquest  of  Gaul  48  B.C.  Pharsalus  (battle) 

46-44  B.C.  Rule  of  Csesar 

43  B.C.  Second  triumvirate  31  b.c.  Actium  (battle) 

27  B.C.  Establishment  of  Empire  under  Augustus 
Golden  Age  of  Literature  5  b.c.  Birth  of  Christ 

43-86  A.D.  Conquest  of  Britain  70  a.d.  Destruction  of  Jerusalem 

79  A.D.  Destruction  of  Pompeii 

Conquests  of  Trajan  (98-117) 
Hadrian  (117-138) 

l^'irst  great  codes  of  Roman  law 
Marcus  Aurelius  (death  180) 

212  Extension  of  citizenship  by  Caracalla 

273  Fall  of  Palmyra 
284  Reorganization  of  empire  by  Diocletian 
313  Recognition  of  Christianity  by  Constantine 

323  Council  of  Nicaea 
376  Beginning  of  German 
Invasions 
Christianity  the  State  religion 
395  Division  of  the  empire  at  death  of  Theodosius  I 
442  Bishop  of  Rome  officially  recognized  as  the  greatest  bishop 
451  Huns  defeated  at  Chalons 
476  "Fall  of  Rome" 
511  d.  Clovis,  King  of  Franks 
(493-527)   Theodoric,  the  Ostrogoth  (527-565)    Justinian  and  the  Great 

Roman  Code 
590-604  Pope  Gregory  the  Great        622  The  Hegira 
664  Council    at    Whitby,    Roman     718    Defeat  of    Saracens    at  Con- 
Christianity  for  England  stantinople 

728  Iconoclast  controversy  between  eastern  and  western  Churches 
732  Defeat  of  Saracens  at  Tours 
756  Donation  of  Pepin 
800  A.D.  Charlemagne  Emperor    (786-809)  Caliph  Haroun  al  Raschid 


348  THE  GERMANS 

General  References 

Robinson,  History  of  Western  Europe,  21-91. 
Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  I,  35-170. 
Bemont  and  Monod,  Medieval  Europe,  21-210. 
Ogg,  Source  Book  of  Medieval  History,  19-148. 
Emerton,  Introduction  to  the  Middle  Ages. 
Duruy,  History  of  the  Middle  Ages,  1-138. 
Adams,  Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages,  1-109. 
Eginhard,  Life  of  Charlemagne. 
Cambridge  Medieval  History,  I,  II. 

Topics 

Ordeals:  Emerton,  Introduction,  81-85;  Ogg,  Source  Book 
of  Medieval  History,  196-202  ;  Henderson,  Historical  Docuvients 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  314-319. 

Theodortc:  Bemont  and  Monod,  Medieval  Europe,  55-62; 
Gardner,  Rome  the  Middle  of  the  World,  138-146;  Duruy,  His- 
tory of  the  Middle  Ages,  34-38;  Cambridge  Medieval  History, 
I,  437-455. 

Growth  of  the  Papacy  :  Robinson,  History  of  Western 
Europe,  44-55;  Emerton,  Introduction,  102-113;  Adams, 
Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages,  107-136. 

The  Coronation  of  Charlemagne  :  Robinson,  Readings  in 
European  History,  I,  No.  56  ;  Thatcher  and  Sehvill,  Europe  in 
the  Middle  Age,  125-133;  Duncalf  and  Krey,  Parallel  Source 
Problems  in  Medieval  History,  3-26. 

Studies 

1.  The  Germans.  Botsford,  Source  Book  of  Ancient  History, 
544-554. 

2.  Tacitus'  account  of  the  early  Germans.  Ogg,  Source  Book 
of  Medieval  History,  23-31. 

3.  Thor.     Guerber,  Myths  of  Northern  Lands,  61-73. 

4.  Valhalla.     Guerber,  Myths  of  Northern  Lands,  23-28. 

5.  Influence  of  the  German  migrations.  Munro  and  Sellery 
(eds.).  Medieval  Civilization,  44-49. 

6.  The  deeds  of  Clovis.     Ogg,  Source  Book,  47-59. 

7.  The  Saxon  invasion  of  Britain.     Ogg,  Source  Book,  68-72. 

8.  Gaul  after  the  invasions.  Bemont  and  Monod,  Medieval 
History,  86-97. 


GERMANS  IN  WESTERN^  EUROPE  349 

9.  The  laws  of  the  Franks.     Ogg,  Source  Book,  59-67. 

10.  The  rule  of  St.  Benedict.     Ogg,  Source  Book,  83-90. 

11.  Economic  influence  of  the  monasteries.  Cunningham, 
Western  Civilization,  II,  35-40. 

12.  The  mission  of  Augustine  to  Britain.  Ogg,  Source  Book, 
72-77. 

13.  The  teachings  of  Islam.     Davis,   Readings,  II,  357-362. 

14.  Moslem  civilization.  Munro,  History  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
86-94. 

15.  The  battle  at  Tours.  Creasy,  Decisive  Battles  of  the  Worlds 
Chapter  XX. 

16.  Charlemagne, the  Man.     Ogg,  Source  Book,  108-114. 

Questions 

1.  Compare  the  early  Germans  with  the  Homeric  people 
(§  131),  the  early  Romans  (§§  280-282)  and  the  later  Romans 
(§  328).  What  did  the  Germans  and  the  first  two  have  in 
common  ?     How  did  they  differ  from  the  later  Romans  ? 

2.  What  qualities  or  practices  of  the  Germans  have  come  down 
to  us  ?  (Notice  New  England  town  meetings  ;  second  paragraph 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence ;   moral  ideas,  etc.) 

3.  How  did  the  Germans  learn  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  an 
accused  person  ?  Did  they  consider  an  accused  person  guilty 
until  he  was  proved  innocent  ?    Did  the  later  Romans  ?    Do  we  ? 

4.  What  was  a  Mayfield?  Valhalla?  a  Valkyrie?  Woden's 
day?     a  "companion"  ? 

5.  On  a  map  show  the  original  homes  and  the  later  homes  of 
the  most  important  German  tribes.  Who  was  Alaric  ?  Stilicho  ? 
Theodoric  ?     Clovis  ?     Show  important  work  of  each. 

6.  To  what  extent  did  culture  survive  in  this  Roman-Teutonic 
period  ?  Is  it  true  that  the  farther  we  get  from  Rome  the  less 
Roman  civilization  survived  the  invasions  ?  What  did  the  Ger- 
mans add  to  the  civilization  of  western  Europe  ?  (See  2, 
above.) 

7.  What  were  the  principal  teachings  of  Islam  ?  Why  was 
Islam  a  good  thing  for  Arabia  ?  for  northern  Africa  ?  Wliy 
would  it  have  been  undesirable  for  Gaul  and  in  central  Europe  ? 
What,  then,  was  the  importance  of  the  battle  of  Tours  ? 

8.  Explain  the  development  of  the  Frankish  monarchy  and 
empire  under  Charles  Martel,  Pepin  the  Short  and  Charle- 
magne. 


350  THE   GERMANS 

9.  On  a  map  show  the  extent  of  Pepin's  kingdoms.     Point 
out  the  territories  added  by  Charlemagne. 

10.  How  did  Charlemagne's  empire  compare  with  that  of 
Augustus  in  location?  size?  race?  importance?  Does  Char- 
lemagne's empire  show  that  the  Romans  and  the  Teutons  were 
more  united  in  his  day  or  in  the  time  of  Theodoric  and  Clovis? 


INDEX 


A'bra-ham,  53 
Achaean  League,  175 

citizenship  privileges,  187 
A-chse'ans,  103 
A-chil'les,  101 
A-crop'o-lis,  152,  195 

plan  of,  (il.)  153 

present  condition,  (il.)  116 

restoration  of,  (il.)  frontispiece 
Actium,  270 
Ad-ri-a-no'ple,  318 
Ad-ri-at'ic  Sea,  127 
-^gean  area,  95-120 

early  civilization  of,  98 

geography  of,  95 
iE-gos-pot'a-mi,  157 
iE-miri-us  Paul'iis,  208 
^-ne'as,  103 
M-ne'k\,  103 
^s'chy-lus,  190 
A-e'tius,  319 
-^-to'li-an  League,  175 
A'ga-de,  42 
Ag-a-mem'non,  101 
A-gath'o-cles,  240 
Ages,  three  historic,  8 

Cretan,  99 

Feudal,  347 

Hellenic,  169 

Hellenistic,  169-177 

Homeric,  103 

Mycenaean,  101 
Agriculture,  in    Egypt    and   Baby- 
lonia, 34,  83 

of  Greece  affected  by  geography, 
97 

of  Greece  in  the   Homeric  Age, 
103 

in  prehistoric  times,  23 

Roman,  255.     See  Irrigation. 
Ag-ri-gen'tum,  111 
Al'a-ric,  329 


Al-ci-bi'a-des,  156 

Alexander,  conquests    of,   165,   167 

death  of,  167 

division  of  empire,  170 

portrait  of,  (il.)  164 

youth  of,  164 
Alexandria,  166 

and  Roman  culture,  208 

as  intellectual  centre,  174 

commerce  of,  173 
Al'lah,  340 
Allies,  Roman,  231 
Alphabet,     connection     with     sign 
writing,  25 

of  Phoenicians,  52,  81 

origin  of,  81 
Al'pine  race,  27 
.Utar  of  Zeus,  (il.)  171 
Am-phic'ty-o-ny,  105 
Amphitheatre,  Greek,  154 

seats  in  amphitheatre,  Athens, 
(il.)  148 

Roman,  295 

Colosseum,    present   condition, 

(il.)  281 
restored,  (il.)  295 
A-nab'a-sis,  193 
Angles,  331 
An-tig'o-ne,  190 
An-ti'o-chus  of  SjTia,  248 
Antonines,  311 
Antony,  Mark,  in  Egypt,  271 

in  second  triumvirate,  270 
Ap'en-nines  Mts.,  218 
Apollo,  104,  106 
Apollo  Belvidere,  (il.)  200 
Apostles,  315 

Appian  Way,  298,  (il.)  298 
Aquae  Sex'ti-oe,  264 
Aqueducts,  282 

Claudian,  (il.)  298 

Roman,  (il.)  284 
A-ra'tus,  175 


351 


352 


INDEX 


Ar-he'hi.  167 
Archos,  Roman,  279-280 
Ar-chi-mo'des,  205 
Architecture,  Babylonian,  75 

Egyptian,  74 

Greek,  152-4,  194-7 

orders  of  Greek,  (il.)  195 

Roman,  280-3 
Ar'chons,  115 
A-re-op'a-gus,  154 
A'ri-ans,  317,  332,  338 
Ar-is-ti'des,  136 
Aristocracy,  in  Athens,  117 

in  Greece,  188 

in  Rome,  224-7 
Ar-is-toph'a-nes,  192 
Ar-is-tot'le,  203,  209 
Ar-me'ni-a,  159 
Army,  Carthaginian,  242 

Macedonian,  159,  165 

Roman.     See  Roman  army. 
Art,  Cretan,  99 
vases,  (il.)  99 

Greek,  194  201 

prehistoric,  15 

painting,  (il.)  14 
Artillery,  Roman,  (il.)  249 
Artisans,  in  Near  East,  65 

Roman,  287 
Arts,  industrial,  in  Egypt,  39 
in  the  Near  East,  85 

paleolithic,  18-21 
Assembly,  Athenian,  148 

of  Germans,  326,  344 

Roman,  224,  225,  261 
As-shur-ban'i-pal,  45,  80 
Assyrian  empire,  44 
As-syr'i-ans,  44 
Ath-a-na'sius,  317 
A-the'na,  (il.)  152 
Athens,     architecture     of,      152-4, 
194-7 

art  of,  194-201 

democracy  in,  148-50,  188 

early  government  of,  115 

Golden  Age  of,  145-54  ; 

in  Hellenistic  Age,  171 

literature  of,  189-194 

location  of,  96,  115 

in  Peloponnesian  war,  154-7 

in  Persian  wars,  134-42    ~ 

philosophy  of.  201-7 


At'ti-ca.  96 
At'ti-la,  319 
Au'gus-tine,  338 
Au-gus'tus,  272-5 

portrait,  (il.)  272 
Au-re'li-an,  312 

walls  of,  (il.)  312 

B 

Babylon,     42-3,     45,     47-8,     132, 

(il.)  47 
Babylonia,   39.     See  also   Babylon 

and  Babylonians. 
"Babylonian  captivity,"  47.  54. 
Babylonian  temple,  (il.)  75 
Babylonians,  laws  of,  43 

literature  of,  79 

religion  of,  73 
Barrack  emperors,  311 
Basketry,  20 
Bastinado,  65,  (il.)  65 
Baths.  Roman,  294 

of  Garacalla.  (il.)  294 
Behistun  rock.  78 
Be'ma,  154,  (il.)  149 
Ben'e-fice,  321 
Bishops  as  civil  leaders,  318 
Ba-o'tia.  96 
Bon'i-face.  339 

Books,  ancient,  78-81,  189-92,  275 
Bridge.  Roman,  (il.)  284 
Britain,  converted  to  Christianity, 
338 

invasion  of,  331 
Bronze,  world-wide  use  of,  85 
Bu-ceph'a-lus,  164 
Buildings,  in  Athens,  152,  195-6 

in  imperial  Rome,  280 

in  the  Near  East,  35,  74,  75 
Bur-gun'di-ans.  331 
By-zan'ti-um,  111,  314. 


Cae'sar,  Ju'lius,  assassination  of,  270 
crosses  the  Rubicon,  269 
defeats  Pompej'-,  269 
in  first  triumvirate,  268 
man  of  letters,  275 
proconsul  of  Gaul,  268 
reforms  of,  269 


INDEX 


353 


Cae'sar,  Ju'lius,  portrait,  (il.)  269 
Csesars,  twelve,  306 
Ca-lyp'so,  102 
Cam-by'ses,  132 
Cam-pa'ni-a,  219 
Campus  Martius,  224 
Cannse,  245 
Cap'i-tol-ine  hill,  219 
Car-a-cal'la,  300 

baths  of,  (il.)  294 
Car-o-lin'gians,  342 
Carthage,  army,  242 

compared  with  Rome,  242 

conquests  and  trade,  241 

defeat  of,  in  Sicily,  140 

destruction  of,  249 

government  of,  241 

location  of,  51,  240 

position  before  Punic  wars,  239, 

240 
position    of,  after    second    Punic 

war,  247 
supremacy  in    western    Mediter- 
ranean, 241 
Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  311 
Cat'i-line,  267 
Cau'dine  Forks,  230 
Cave  men,  13-5 
Censor,  227  n. 

Centuries,  assembly  of,  224  ' 

Chi3er-o-ne'a,  160 
Chairs,  Greek,  (il.)  182 
Chal-de'an,  47,  49 
(.-ha'lons,  battle  of,  319 
Char-le-magne',  342-5 
Charles  Mar-tel',  341 
Cha-ryb'dis,  102 
Che-ops',  36 
Christ,  ])irth  of,  276,  314 

teachings  of,  315 
Christians,   persecution  under  Ro- 
man emperors,  316 
teachings  of,  302 
Christianity,     acceptance     of,     by 
Rome,  314,  317 
conversion  of  Germans  to,  332, 

338-9 
organization   of   church  of,  315- 

16 
spread  of,  314-17 
triumph  of,  over  Mohammedan- 
ism at  Tours,  341 
2  a 


Chronological  table,  Greece  (spread 
of    Hellenism)     [753    B.C.-146 
A.D.],  214-7 
Oriental     nations      and     Greece 

[4241  B.C.-525  B.C.],  121 
Western  Europe  and  Near  East, 
[146  A.D.-800  A.D.],  347 
Church,  in  Britain,  338 
and  Clovis,  332 
and  Constantine,  317 
early,  315 
importance  of,  336 
organized  as  empire,  336 
Roman  state  and,  317 
Churches,  St.  Peters,  (il.)  344 
St.  Sophia,  Constantinople,   (il.) 
313 
Cic'e-ro,  and  Catiline,  267 

orator  and  man  of  letters,  275 
Cim'bri.  264 
Ci'mon,  145 

Cin-cin-na'tus,  the  dictator,  228 
Cir'ce,  102 

Circus  Maximus,  281,  (il.)  296 
Circuses,  Roman,  281,  283,  296 
Cis'al'pine  Gaul,  218,  245 
Cities  in  early  Roman  empire,  285 
Citizenship,  Greek,  180,  186-7 
Roman,  231-2,  264,  299,  300 
-City-^tate,  in  Tigris-Euphrates  val- 
ley, 41 
of  Greece,  97,  105,  187 
Civilization,  Greek,  179-207 
modern,  and  the  past,  3 
of  Near  East,  60-89 
in  Nile  valley,  34,  38 
carried  by  Phoenicians,  52 
prehistoric,  18-25 
Roman,  281-99 
standards  of,  6 
of  Teutonic  kingdoms,  335 
in  Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  48 
western  Greek,  207-10 
Clau'di-us.  300,  307 
Cleis'the-nes,  118 
Cle-o-pa'tra,  271 
Clients,  287 
Climate,  of  Egypt,  33 
of  Greece,  97 

of  Italy  and  Rome,  218-20 
of  Mediterranean  basin,  128 
of  the  Near  East,  84 


354 


INDEX 


Climate,  of  Tigris-Euphrates  vallcv, 

39 
Clothing,  Greek,  182 

in  the  Near  East,  G2,  G7 

in  preliistoric  times,  21 

Roman,  293 
Clo'vis,  king  of  the  Franks,  331 
Code,  of  Draco,  116 

of  Hamnmrabi,  43 

of  Justinian,  321 

in  twelve  tables,  226 
Coins,  ancient,  117,  (il.)  117 
Colonization,  Athenian,  187  n. 

Greek,  109-12,  (map)  opp.  Ill 

Roman,  231 
Colosseum,  295 

present  condition  of,  (il.)  281 

restoration  of,  295 
Colossus  of  Rhodes,  172 
Comedy  in  Athens,  191-2 
Co-mi'ti-a  Cen-tu-ri-a'ta,  224 
Commerce,  in  Ancient  Orient,  88 

of  Alexandria,  173 

of  Carthage,  241 

of  Greeks  increased  by  Alexander, 
168 

Roman,  219,  298,  322 
Community  life  of  the  Germans,  325 
Confederacy,  of  Delos,  145 

Latin,  229 
Con'stan-tine,  313 
Constantinople,  209,  313 
Con'sul,  225 
Cor'inth,  congress  at,  138 

destruction  of,  20S,  249 
Cor-ne'li-a,  262 
Courts,  Athenian,  150 

German,  334 

Roman,  301 
Crassus,   in  first  triumvirate,   270, 

282  n. 
Cre'tan  civilization,  98-101 

in  prehistoric  period,  17 
Cretan  vase,  (il.)  99 
Culture,  of  Athens  and  ^Egean  cities 
in  Hellenistic  period,  171-4 

Greek,     stimulated     by     Persian 
wars,  141 

Greek,  spread  by  Alexander,  168, 
169,  207 

Greek,  spread  to  Rome  and  the 
West,  208-9 


in  Near  East,  90 

Roman,    darkened    by    Teutonic 
invasions,  335 

Sumcrian,  41 

in  Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  49 
Cn'mist,  112 

Cu'ne-i-form  writing,  40,  45,  48 
Cupid,  104 
Cylinder,  six-sided,  (il.)  40 

of  Cyrus,  (il.)  131 
Cyrus,  131 

cylinder  of,  (il.)  131 


D 


Da'ci-a,  310 
Danube  River,  250,  329 
Da-ri'us,  132 
David,  53 
De-cem'virs,  226 
Deities,  104.  328 
De-la'tors,  306 
De'los,  106 
Dcl'phi,  96 

Deluge,  Babylonian  story  of,  73 
Democracy,    in   Athenian    emi)irc. 
148-50 

under  Cleisthenes  in  Athens,  118 

Greek,  188 

in  Rome,  227,  261 
D(-mos'the-nes,  160,  194 

statue,  (il.)  160 
Di-a'-na,  104 
Dic-ta'tor,  225,  228,  271 
Di'do,  103 
Di'o-ce-ses,  313 
Di-o-de'ti-an,  312 
Di-og'e-nes,  204 
Di-o-nys'i-us,   tyrant   of   Syracuse, 

190 
Dis-cob'o-lus,  (il.)  197 
Divorce,  in  Near  East,  69 

in  Rome,  221,  252,  289 
Domestication,  of  animals,  22,   (il.) 
22 

of  plants,  23 
Do-mi'ti-an,  309 
Do'ri-ans,  109,  113 
Dra'co,  116 

Dramatists,  Greek,  190-2 
Dress,   Greek,  182 

woman's  (il.)  182 


INDEX 


355 


Dress,  in  the  Near  East,  62,  67 
Roman,  293 
toga,  (il.)  293 


E 


East  Mediterranean  coast,  (map)  50 
Education,  under  Charlemagne,  344 

in  Greece,  182 

in  Near  East,  64 

in  Rome,  289 

punishment,  (il.)  290 
Egypt,  33-9 

(maps),  34,  opp.  49 

business  in,  84-8 

life  in,  60-70 

in  prehistoric  times,  17 
vases,  (il.)  17 

religion  of,  71-2 

Judgment  of  the  Soul,  (il.)  73 

writing  materials  and  books  in, 
77-9 
Egyptian  house,  (il.)  62 
Egyptian  ship,  (il.)  88 
Empire,     of     Alexander,      164-70, 
(map)  opp.  167 

Assyrian,  44,  (maps)  40,  opp.  49 

Athenian,  146-47 

of  Augustus,  273 

New  Babylonian,  46 

Old  Babylonian,  42,  (map)  40 

By-zan'tine,  or  Eastern  Empire, 
318 

of  Caesar,  269 

Egyptian  36-8,  (map)  opp.  49 

Prankish,  342-5 

Germanic,  345,  (map)  opp.  331 

Hittite,  50,  (map)  opp.  49 

Persian,  129-34,  (map)  opp.  131 

Plan  of  Imperial  Rome,  (il.)  opp. 
280 

Roman,    269-323,     (maps)    opp. 
250,  312 
E-pam-i-non'das,  158 
Ep-i-cu'rus,  204 
E-pi'rus,  248 
Equites,  224 
Er-a-tos'the-nes,  206 
Er-ech-the'um,  196,  (il.)  152 
E-tru'ri-a,  219,  229 
E-trus'cans,  carriers  of  Greek  cul- 
ture, 208 


influence  in  Mediterranean,  239 

kings  of  Rome,  223 
Eu'clid,  205 

Euphrates  River,  39.  (See  a/so  Tigris- 
Euphrates  valley 
Eu-rip'i-des,  191 
"Exodus"  from  Egypt,  53 


F 


Fa'bi-us  Max'i-mus,  the  "delayer," 

245 
Family,  Greek,  180 

Roman,  221,  252 
Farmers,  Roman,  254 
Fates,  (il.)  198 
Fay'um,  84 

Feudal  beginnings  in    Roman   em- 
pire, 320 
Feudal  period  in  Egypt,  36  n. 
Fire  and  civilization,  18 
Fist-hatchet,  11,  (il.)  11 
"Five  good  emperors,"  309 
Fla'vi-an  Rulers,  308 
Fleet,  Greek,  137-9,  140,  145 

Roman,  243,  244 
Forum,  Roman,  279 

to-day  and  restored,  (il.)  280 

Pompeian,  (il.)  309 
Franks,  331,  342-5 
Freedmen,  287 
Frey'a,  328 
Furniture,  Greek  chairs,  (il.)  182 

Roman,  (il.)  292 


G 


Games,  Greek,  106-9 

Roman,  252,  276,  294 
Gaul,  Caesar  in,  270 

Saracens  in,  341 
Gauls,    revolt   during    Punic    war, 
245 

sack  Rome,  229 
Ge'la,  111 

Ge'lon  of  Syracuse,  140 
Geography,  of  .^gean  area,  95 

of  Carthage,  240 

of  east  Mediterranean  coast,  49- 
50 

of  Egypt,  33 


35G 


INDEX 


Geography,  of  Italy  and  Rome,  48, 
218-220,  (map)  opp.  219 

of  the  Mediterranean  basin,  128 

of  Pha'nicia,  51 

of  Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  39 
Germans,  civilization  of,  335 

community  life  of,  325 

government  of,  326,  333 

ideas  of  justice,  327 

and  the  Latin  language,  334 

law  of,  333 

migration     of,      329-31,     (mai)s) 
330,  opp.  331 

religion  of,  328 

and  the  Roman  Empire,  318,  319, 
345 

social  classes,  326 
Gilds  in  Rome,  288 
Girga-mesh,  labors  of,  79 
Gladiators,  contests,  296 

in  public  games,  252 

Roman,  (il.)  252 
Golden  Age  of  Greece,  145 
Goths,  329,  338 
Government,  early  Athenian,  115 

of  Carthage,  241 

German,  326,  333 

Greek.     See    Greek    government 
in  Near  East,  90 

Roman.    (See  Roman  government 

Spartan,  114 
Grac'chus,  Ga'ius,  262-3 
Grac'chus,  Ti-be'ri-us,  262 
Gra-ni'cus  River,  165 
Greece,  after  Alexander,  174 

conquest  of,  by  Rome,  249 

a  dependency  of  Rome,  176 

early  i)eriod  of,  113-20 

geographical  divisions,  95,  (maj:)) 
opp.  95 

Golden  Age  of,  145 

Hellenic  period  of,  145-161 

Hellenistic  period  of,  169-77 

influence  of  geography  on,  96,  97 

literature  of,  189-94 

period  of  expansion  of,  127  (map) 
opp.  Ill 

place  of,  in  history,  179-210. 

subjugation  of,  by  Philip,  159 

wars  with  Persia,   134-42,   (map) 
119 

See  also  Trade,  etc. 


Greek  government,  186-8 

Athenian  democracy,  148 

early,  of  Athens,  1 15 

early,  of  Sparta,  1 14 
Greeks,  art  of,  194-201 

character  of,  184 

civilization  of,  179-210 

colonization  of,  109-13 

modernness  of,  5,  179 

sciences  among,  201-7 

social  life  of,  180-5 

unity  among,  104 

See  also  Housing,  Dress,  etc. 
Gy-lip'pus,  156 

Gymnasium,    Hadrian's    ruins    of, 
(il.)  283 

H 

Ha'dri-an.  310 

gymnasium,  (il.)  283 

tomb,  281,  311 
Ham-mu-ra'bi,  42 

code  of  laws,  43,  (il.)  42 
Hannibal,  245-7 
Has'dru-bal,  247 
Hebrews,  50,  52-4 
Hec'tor,  101 
He-gi'ra,  339 
Hel-le'nes,  104,  109 
Hellenic  Greece,  145-54 
Hellenism,  171,  207 
Hel-len-is'tic  Age,  l(i9 
Hel'les-pont,  137 
He'lots,  113 
Her-cu-la'ne-imi,  308 
Hermes,  (il.)  19,S 
Herodotus,  193 
Hesiod,  104,  189 
Hi-er-o-giyph'ics,  38,  78 

Egyptian,  (il.)  78 
Him'e-ra,  112,  140,  239 
Hip'pi-as,  117.  135 
Hip-poc'ra-tes,  206 
Historians,  Greek,  192 

Ronian,  275 
History,  ages  of,  8 

epochs  of,  7 

records  of,  6 
Hit'tites,  49,  (map)  opp.  49 
Ho'mer.  102,  189 
Ho-mer'ic  Age,  101-4 
Hor'ace,  275 


INDEX 


357 


Ho-ra'tius,  228 

Horsing   a   boy  in   Roman  school, 

(il.)  290 
Housing,  Assyrian  and  Babylonian, 
45 
Greek,  185,  (il.)  182 
in  the  Near  East,  61,  66-7 
Egyptian  house,  (il.)  62 
peasant's  house,  66 
prehistoric,  13,  15,  16 
Roman,  290-3 

typical  plan,  (il.)  291 
peristyle,  (il.)  292 
Huns,  319 
Hyksos,  36 


H'i-acl,  102,  189 
Im-per-a'tor,  Augustus,  272 

Caesar,  269 
Industry,  in  Greece,  97 

in  Near  East,  83-7 

in  the  Roman  world,  287 
Invasions,  Persian,  135,  137 
Invasions  of  Rome,  ])y  Angles  and 
Saxons,  331 

by  Burgundians  and  Franks,  331 

by  Cimbri  and  Teutones,  264 

by  Germans,  318 

by  Goths,  329 

by  Huns,  319 

nature  of  Teutonic,  332 

by  Vandals,  331 
I-o'ni-an,  113 
Ionic  revolt,  134 
Iph-i-ge-ni'a,  191 
Ip'sus,  battle  of,  170 
Irrigation,  in  ancient  times,  84 

on  the  Euphrates,  (il.)  82 

Egyptian  water  sweep,  (il.)  83 
Is'lam,  339-40 
Is'ra-el,  54 
Is'ra-el-ites,  45 
Is'sus,  166 

Isth'mi-an  games,  108 
Italian  right.  232 
Italians,  Roman  citizens,  264,  300 
Italy,  conquest  of,  by  Romans,  227, 
230,  231 

geography  of,  218 
lu'lus,  103 


Janus,  271,  297 
Je-ru'sa-lem,  54 

destruction  of,  308 

spoils  from,  (il.)  308 
Ju-de'a,  54,  315 
Ju-gur'tha,  263-4 
Julian  emperors,  306 
Juno,  104 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  104 

altar  of,  (il.)  171 
Jury  in  Athens,  150 
Jus-tin'i-an,  321 
Ju've-nal,  275 

K 
Kar'nak,  37,  74 

great  colunms,  (il.)  37 
Kingdom,  of  Alexander's  successors, 
170 

new  Babylonian,  46 

old  Babylonian,  42 

in  Egypt,  35 

Hebrew,  53 

of  Medes,  130 

Teutonic,  329 
Kitchen  Middens,  15 
Knights,  Roman,  286 
Knos'sos,  82 
Ko'ran,  339 

L 

Laconia,  113 
Lake  dwellings,  16 
Language,  Greek,  207,  210 

Latin,  300,  334 

in  the  Near  East,  77-83 

prehistoric,  24 

romance,  301 
La-oc'o-on,  173 

group,  (il.)  172 
La'res  and  Pe-na'tes,  222 
Latin  language,  301 
Latin  right,  232 
La'ti-um,  219 
Laws,  of  Draco  in  Athens,  116 

of  Germanic  kingdoms,  333 

of  Hammurabi,  43 

of  Justinian,  302,  321 

Licinian,  227 

development  of  Roman,  301 

of  twelve  tables,  226 

Sec  Codes, 


358 


INDEX 


LcaKiu's,  A-i'htu'an,  175 

^.-to'li-an,  175 

Confcdoracy  of  Dclos,  145 

of  Greek  city-states,  186 

Greek,      dissolved      by     Sparta, 
158 

importance  of.  188 

Peloponnesian,  115 
Le'gions,  233 
Le-on'i-das,  138 
Leuctra,  158 
Li-cin'i-an  laws,  227,  255 
Lictor,  225  n. 

Lion  Gate,  Mycenae,  (il.)  100 
Literature,  in  Assyria,  79 

in  Babylonia,  79 

in  the  Near  East,  77-83,  90 

in  Egypt,  78 

in  Greece,  189-94 

in  Rome,  275 
Li'vy,  275 

"Lost  ten  tribes,"  54 
Lux'or,  37,  74 

restored,  (il.)  74 
Ly-cur'gns,  115 
Lydia,  134 

M 

MacVa-bees,  173 

Mac'e-don  or  Macedonia,  defeated 
by  Romans,  247 

location,  96 

subdued  by  Alexander,  165 

under  Philip,  159 
Mag-ne'si-a,  248 
Mankind,  classifications  of,  26 

in  prehistoric  period,  11-25 
Mar'a-thon,  135,  (il.)  135 
March  of  "Ten  Thousand,"  158 
Mar'cus  Au-re'li-us,  275,  311 

statue,  (il.)  310 
Mar-do'ni-us,  140 
Ma'ri-us,  264-5 

Marriage  and  domestic  life,  Greek, 
181,  182 

in  the  Near  East,  69 

Roman,  221,  252,  289 
Mars,  104 

Masks  for  tragedy,  (il.)  190 
Mas-.sil'i-a,  112 

Matheniatics  among  Greeks,  205 
Max'i-ma  do-a'ca,  223 


Mayfield  of  Charlemagne,  344 
Mecca,  339 
Me-de'a,  191 
Medes,  130 
Mcflina.  339 

Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an  race.  27 
Mediterranean  Sea,  128,  220 

east  coast,  (niaj>)  50 
Megaliths,  16 
Memi)his,  35 
Me-nan'der,  192 
Menes,  35 
Mer'cu-ry,  104 
Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a,  39 
Mes-sa'na,  112 
Metal  age,  8 
Me-tau'rus,  246 
Mct'ics,  180 
Middle  class  in  Rome,  254-5,  286, 

321 
Migrations,        German,        329-31, 

(niap)  330 
Mi-le'tus,  110 
Mil-ti'a-des,  136 
Minerva,  104 
Mis'si  do-min'i-ci,  344 
Mith-ri-da'tes,  king  of  Pontus,  256, 

265,  267 
Moabite  stone,  (il.)  52 
Mohammed,  339 
Mohammedanism,    339-41,     (map) 

opp.  340 
Monasteries,  337 

Money  introduced  in  Ath(>ns,  116 
Monks.  337 
Monotheism,  54,  76 
Morality,  among  Persians,  133 

in  Rome,  272 
Mos'lems,  209,  340-1 
Mummies,  72,  (il.)  72 
Mu-ni-cip'i-a,  286 
My-ea'le,  140 
My-ce-nse'an  Age,  100 

Lion  Gate  at,  (il.)  100 
My'ue.  244 
Mv'roii,  197 


N 


Navy.  Athenian,  146.  156 
Carthaginian,  242 
See  Fleet. 


INDEX 


359 


Near  East,  dress,  62 

geography,  49-52,  (map)  50 

government,  60 

life  of  people,  64-70 

religion,  70-7 

trade  and  industry,  83-9 

writing  and  literature,  77-83 
Neb-u-chad-nez'zar,  46 
Ne-me'an  games,  108 
Ne-o-lith'ic  civilization,  15-8 

in  Crete,  17 

in  Egypt,  17 
Nep'tune,  104 
Nero,  307 

persecution  of  Christians,  316 
Ni-cse'a,  council  at,  314,  317 
Nicias,  Peace  of,  155 
NUe  River,  33 
Nin'e-veh,  45,  46 
Nobles,  among  the  Germans,  326 

in  Near  East,  61 

Roman,  224,  285,  320-1 
Nor'dic  race,  27 
Nu-mid'i-a,  249,  263 
Nu-mid'i-an  horsemen,  245  n. 

O 

Ob'e-lisques,  79 

Oc-ta'vi-us  Caesar,   270,    271.     See 

Augustus. 
O-do-a'cer,  330 
Od'ys-sey,  102,  189 
(Ed'i-pus  Ty-ran'nus,  190 
Olympia,  106 

restored,  (il.)  107 
O-lym'pi-ad,  108 
0-I>Tn'pus,  104 
Omens,  Roman,  222 
Oracles,  106,  137 
Oratory,  Greek,  193 
0-si'ris,  71 
Os'tra-cism,  118,  137 
Os'tro-goths,  329 


Painting,  Greek,  200 

prehistoric,  15,  (il.)  14 
Pal'a-tine  hill,  219 
Pa-le-o-lith'ic    civilization,     11-15, 

18,    22.     See    also  Prehistoric 

period. 


Pal'es-tine,  50,  173,  (map)  50 

Pal-my'ra,  312 

Pantheon,  (il.)  282 

Papacy,  336,  337 

Pa-py'rus,  79 

Paris,  the  award  of,  101 

Par'the-non,  152,  195 

present  condition,  (il.)  196 
Pa-tri'cians,  224-7 
Pax  Ro-ma'na,  297,  311,  320 
Peasants,  65,  287-8,  320 

house,  (il.)  66 
Pe-Iop'i-das,  158, 
Peloponnesian  war,  154-7 
Pel-o-pon-ne'sus,  96,  115 
Pe-nel'o-pc,  102 
Pen-tath'lon,  108 
Pep'in,  342 
Per'ga-mum,  171 

altar  of  Zeus  at,  (il.)  171 
Per'i  cles,  146 

portrait,  (il.)  150 

golden  age  of,  145-54 
Per-i-oi'ci,  113 
Per-sep'o-lis,  167 

Persia,     character     of     people     of, 
133 

conquest       of,       by     Alexander, 
167 

religion,  133 
Persian  wars,  134-42 
Phalanx,  of  Alexander,  165 

Macedonian  vs.  Roman  legion,  248 

of  Philip,  159 
Pharaohs.  35 
Phidias,  109,  196,  198 

statue  of  Athena,  (il.)  152 
Philip  of  Macedon,  159 
Philippics,  194 
Philosophy,  Greek,  201-4 

Ronaan,  311 
Pho'ci-ans,  159 
Phce-ni'cians,  50 

and  the  alphabet,  81 

as  carriers  of  civilization,  52 

colonies  of,  51 

trade  of,  51.  87,  88 
Pin'dar,  189 
Pir-aj'us,  146,  157,  (il.)   147,  (map, 

showing  long  walls)  147 
Pi-sis'tra-tus,  117 
Platffia,  140 


360 


INDEX 


Plato,  203 

Pl(>-lH>'iiins,  225-7 

Plu'tarch,  VXi 

Po-lyh'i-us,  193 

Polytheism,  76 

Pompeii,  destruction  of,  308 

Pompey,  267-9 

portrait,  (il.)  267 
Pon'tius  Pi'late,  315 
Po  River,  218 
Pottery,  20 
Prse'tor,  301 
Prax-it'e-les,  199 

Hermes,  (il.)  198 
Pre'fec-tures,  313 
Prehistoric  horse,  (il.)  22 
Prehistoric  man,  11-8 
Prehistoric  ijeriod,  7,  11-29 

civilization  of,  18-25 

epochs  of,  8 
Pre-tor'i-an  guard,  307 
Priest,  63 

Prin'ceps,  272,  306,  30S 
Principate  of  Claudius',  307 
Prisoners,  Greek,  181 
Pro-py-lffi'a,  152 

Proscriptions,    under    Marius    and 
Sulla,  266 

under  second  triumvirate,  270 
Proverbs,  53 
Provinces,  Persian,  132 

Roman,  250,  253,  273,  285 
Psalms,  53 
Ptol'e-my,  206 
Ptolemys  in  Egypt,  170 
Public  offices,  in  Athens,  150 

among  Germans,  326 

in  Rome,  285-7 
Public  works,  in  Alexandria,  173 

Athenian,  146,  152,  154 

long  walls  to  Piranis,  (il.)  147 

under    Darius,  133 

German,  330 

in  the  Near  East,  84,  89 

Roman,  281-3,  291,  294,  297-8 
Publicans,  254 
Punic  wars,  243-50 
Pyd'na,  248 
Pyramids,  35,  (il.)  36 
Pyrrhus,  230,  240 
Py-thag'o-ras,  112,  205 
Pyth'i-a,  108 


R 


Races,  classification  of,  26-7 

fusion    of    Roman    and    Teuton, 
332-5 
Ram'e-ses  II,  37 
Raud'ine  plain,  264 
Religion,  Bal)ylonian,  73 

C;hristianity,  274,  314-7,  336-9 

Egyptian,  71 

Judgment  of  the  Soul,  (il.)  73 

of  Germans,  328 

Greek,  104,  105,  183 

Hebrew,  64,  76 

Mohammedanism,  339-41 

monotheism  and  polytheism,  76 

Persian,  133 

of  i)rimitive  man,  70 

Roman,  221,  314,  316 

in  Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  75 
Rennis,  223 

Republic,  Roman,  224-69 
Revolution,  Roman,  262 
Rhine  River,  330 
Rhodes,  172,  249 
Roads,  Roman,  297,  (map)  299 

Appian  Way,  (il.)  298 

Per.sian,  133 
Roman  army,  232 

decline  of,  322 

made  democratic  by  Marius,  266 

influence    in    naming    emperors, 
307 

rule  of,  311 

soldiers,  232,  (U.)  231 
Roman  artillery,  (il.)  249 
Roman     government,     under    Au- 
gustus, 275 

under  Caesar,  271 

changes  due  to  struggle  of  plel  s, 
225-7 

luider  Diocletian,  315 

in  early  republic,  224 

Ijefore  the  Revolution,  261 

of  provinces,  253 

principate,  309 

copied  in  Teutonic  kingdoms,  335 
Romans,  army  of,  232,  311 

character  of,  220 

family  life.  221,  290 

nioderiiness  of,  5 

religion,  221 


INDEX 


361 


Romans,  social  classes,  287-8 

See  Housing,  Dress,  etc. 
Rome,  and  her  allies,  231 

of  Augustus,  272-4 

and  Carthage,  242 

citizenship  in,  231 

conquests  of,  238,  250 

early  period,  220-4 

empire  of,  272-322,   (map)    opp. 
312 

and  Etruscans,  223 

expansion  of,  227-30,  243-50 

fall  of,  319 

and  Gauls,  229 

geography  of,  218 

and  Greek  culture,  208 

influence  of  wealth  on,  251,  272 

literature,  175 

in  Mediterranean,  238-50 

public  buildings  of,  273,  279,  280 

plan  of,  (il.)  opp.  280 

Punic  wars,  243-50 

republic  of,  224-34 

and  the  early  Revolution,  264 

in  late  republic,  250 

vinder  rival  leaders,  265—71 

See  also  Trade,  Industry,  etc. 
Rom'u-lus,  223 
Ro-set'ta  stone,  77,  (il.)  77 
Rub'i-con  River,  219,  265,  269  n. 


S 


S.  p.  Q.  R.,  227 
Sabines,  219 

Sacred  chickens,  (il.)  223 
Sacred  war,  159 
Sacrifice,  Roman,  222 

Greek,  183 
Sal'a-mis,  139,  (il.)  139 
Sal'lust,  275 
Sa-ma'ri-a,  54 
Samnites,  219 
Sam'nite  wars,  229 
Sap'pho,  189 
Sar'a-cens,  341 
Sarcophagus  of  King  of  Sidon,  (il.) 

199 
Sar'dis,  134 
Sargon  of  Agade,  42 
Sa'trap,  132 
Saul,  53 


Saxons,  331 

conquered  by  Charlemagne,  345 
Scho-las'ti-cism,  209 
Science,  among  the  Greeks,  206 

before  the  Greeks,  204-5 
Scip'i-o,  Pub'li-us  Cor-nel'i-us,  247 
Scribe,  64,  (il.)  64 
Sculpture,  Greek,  197-201 
Scyl'la,  102 
Secession  of  plebs,  225 
Se-leu'cids,  170,  173  n.,  238 
Sem'ites,  41 
Sen'ate,  Roman,  225 

controls  government,  227 

degeneration  of,  261,  263 

enlarged  by  Csesar,  271 

revolt  against,  262 

restored  by  Sulla,  266 

under  Augustus,  273 
Senators,  Roman,  285 
Sen'e-ca,  275 

Sep-tim'i-us  Se-ve'rus,  311 
Sib'yl-line  books,  227  n. 
Sic'i-ly,  109,  111,  155 

Carthaginian       invasions,      140, 
239,  240 
Slavery,  in  Greece,  181 

in  Near  East,  70 

in  Rome,  254,  288,  320 

slave  in  fetters,  (il.)  288 

in  Sparta,  113 
Socii,  264 
Social  classes,  German,  326 

Greek,  180-1 

in  Near  East,  60-3 

Roman,  224,  251,  254,  285-9 
Soc'ra-tes,  202,  (il.)  202 
Soldier,  Roman,  232-3,  (il.)  231 
Sol'o-mon,  53 
So'lon,  116 
Soph'ists,  202 
Sophocles,   190 
Spar'ta,  location  of,  96,  113 

supremacy  of,  157 

yields  to  Thebes,  158 
Spar'ta-cus,  267 
Spartans,  113-4 
Sphinx,  36 

Spinning  and  weaving,  21 
St.  Benedict,  337 
St.  Peter's  Church,  (il.)  344 
St.  Sophia,  Constantinople,  (il.)  313 


362 


INDEX 


Stil'i-cho.  320 

Sto'i-risni,  204,  302 

Stoiu^  age,  8 
now,  15-8 
old,  11-5 

Subject  cities,  Rome's  policy,  300 

Sulla,  268 

Sunierians,  40 

Su'sa,  167 

Syr'a-cuso,  1 1 1 

before  the  Punic  wars,  240 
expedition  of  Greeks  against,  155 

Syria,  49,  132 

controlled  by  Rorn(«,  248 
influenced  by  Greek  culture,  173 


Tac'i-tus,  275 

Ta-ren'tum,  112,  218 

Taxes,  a})uses  in  collection  of,  254 

direct  in  provinces,  271 

in  early  Roman  provinces,  253 
Tel  el  Amarna  tablets,  79 
Temples,  in  Egypt,  74 

Luxor,  (il.)  74 

Greek,  195 

altar  of  Zeus,  (il.)  171 

Parthenon,  (il.)  196 

Roman  Pantheon,  (il.)  282 

in  Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  75 

Babylonian,  (il.)  75 
Tenements,  Roman,  293 
"Ten  lost  tribes,"  45 
Teu-ton'es,  264 
Teu'tons,  27,  329-35 
Tha'les,  205,  112 
Theatre,  Greek,  plan  of,  (il.)  191 

Roman,  294 

ruins  of,    at    Orange,    France, 

(il.)  284 
plan  of,  (il.)  191 
Thebes,    destroyed    by    Alexander, 
165 

"hundred-gated,"  37 

victory  over  Spartans,  158 
The-mis'to-des,  136 
The-od'o-ric,  329,  330 
The-o-do'si-us,  317-8 
Ther-mop'y-la^  location,  96 

Leonidas  at,  138 
Thes'pis,  190 


Thor,  328 

Thotmes  III  (Tot'mes),  37 
Three  Fates,  (il.)  198 
Thu-cyd'i-des,  193 
Ti'ber,  219 
Til)erius,  306 
Tig'lath  Pi-le'ser,  44 
Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  39,  (map) 
40 

Mgriculture,  83-4 

c-i\ilization  of,  48-9 

geograpliy  of,  39 

literature  of,  79-80 

religion  of,  75-6 
Ti-mo'le-on,  240 
Ti'tus,  308 

To'ga,  Roman,  285,  293,  (il.)  293 
Tools,  prehistoric,  11,  19 

in  Near  East,  84 
Tours  (Toor),  battle  of,  341 
Trade,  encouraged  by  Alexander's 
conquests,  168 

Carthaginian,  241 

of  Cretans,  99 

of  Greek  colonies.  111 

in  Near  East,  85-9.  91 

Egyptian  market,  (il.)  86 

in  neolithic  times,  17 

of  Pha-nicians,  51-2 

of  Rome,  298-9 

routes  of,  89 
Tragedy,  Athenian,  190 

masks,  (il.)  190 
Tra'jan,  310 

Transportation   in    Near   East,    by 
caravan,  88 

by  sea,  88 

trade  routes,  89 
Trials,  Athenian,  150 

by  compurgation,  327 

by  ordeal,  327 

in  Teutonic  kingdoms,  336 
Trib'unes,  225-7 

power  of,  263,  269,  273 
Triumph,  Roman,  234 

of  Gffisar,  (il.)  232-3 
Triumvirate,  first.  2(»7 

.second.  270 
Trojan  war,  101  , 

Twelve  tables  (written  law),  226 
Tyranny  in  Greek  history.  188 
Tyrants  expelled  from  Athens,  117 


INDEX 


363 


Tyre,  destroyed  by  Alexander,  166 
founded  as  Phoenician  colony,  51 
Tyrian  purple,  52,  85 


U 


Ul'fi-las,  338 
U-lys'ses,  101 
Unity,  Greek,  105 
Roman,  271,  299 


Val-hal'la,  328 

Val-kyr'ies,  328 

Van'dals,  329,  331 

Vap'i-o  cups,  101 

Ve'ii,  conquest  of,  229 

Venus,  104 

Venus  deMilo,  201,  (il.)  201 

Ves-pa'si-an,  308 

Vestal  virgin,  (il.)  222 

Ve-su'vi-us,  309,  (il.)  309 

Victory  of  Samothrace,  201,  (il.)  201 

Vir'gil,  103,  275 

Vis'i  goths,  329 

W 

Wars,  Greek,  Peloponnesian,  154 
Persian,  134 
Roman,     against    Antiochus    of 
Syria,  248 
conquest  of  Greece,  248 
against  Jugurtha,  265 
with  Macedonia,  247 
with  Mithridates,  267 
Punic,  243 
social,  266 
Sec  Army. 


Winged  bull,  (il.)  46 
Winged  victory,  (il.)  201 
Wo'den,  328 

Woman,   position   of,   among   Ger- 
mans, 325 
position  of,  in  Greek  states,   182 
dress  of  Greek,  (il.)  182 
position  of,  in  Near  East,  68,  (il.) 

67,  68 
l)osition  of,  in  Rome,  252,  289 
dress  of  Roman,  293 
Spartan,  114,  181 
Wonien  of  the  Near  East  grinding, 
(il.)  67 
making  bread,  (il.)  68 
Woodworking,  85 
Writing,  Assyrian,  80-1 
Egyptian,  78 

hieroglyphics,  (il.)  78 
Rosetta  stone,  (il.)  77 
materials,  Greek,  (il.)  183 
Phoenician,  52 
Moabite  stone,  (il.)  52 
prehistoric,  25 
Sec  Alphabet. 


X 


Xen'o-phon,  193 
Xer'xes,  137,  139 

Z 

Za'ma,  247 
Ze'no,  204 
Ze-no'bi-a,  312 
Ze\is.      Sec  ,Jui)iter. 
Zo-ro-as'tri-au-isni , 


134 


American  History,  Revised 

By  ROSCOE  lewis  ASHLEY 

Head  of  History  Department,  Pasadena  High  School,  California 

Cloth,  J2mo,  illustrated,  j^y  p<iges,  $1.40 

In  this  text  the  main  theme  is  the  development  of  the  nation.  General 
movements  and  their  relative  value  are  everywhere  emphasized  over  casual 
events  and  smaller  movements.  In  order  to  make  as  clear  as  possible  this 
general  course  of  national  development  and  to  explain  the  character  of  the 
principal  movement  v^^ithin  each  short  period  the  subjects  have  been  grouped 
under  topical  heads  which  act  as  milestones  in  the  course. 

There  is  a  complete  system  of  marginal  references  to  books  found  in  the 
average  high  school  library.  Topics,  studies,  and  questions  at  the  ends  of 
chapters  complete  and  augment  the  class  recitation.  The  illustration  of 
the  book  is  new,  educative,  and  interesting. 


American  Government,  Revised 


By  the  Same  Author 

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The  high  school  course  should  accomplish  three  things  for  the  pupil : 
it  should  give  an  adequate  knowledge  of  the  structure  and  functions  of  gov- 
ernment ;  it  should  point  out  the  connection  between  the  life  of  the  citizen 
and  the  activities  of  the  government ;  and  it  should  train  the  judgment  to 
weigh  both  sides  of  public  questions  and  to  consider  fairly  political  policy. 
Ashley's  "  American  Government "  is  written  with  special  reference  to  these 
three  points  and  stresses  particularly  the  activities  of  the  government  — 
local,  state,  and  federal.  An  examination  of  the  list  of  chapters  will  show 
how  wide  and  practical  is  the  scope  of  the  book : 


Chap. 


Chap. 

H 

Chap. 

HI 

Chap. 

IV 

Chap. 

V 

Chap. 

VI 

Ch«iP. 

VII 

Chap. 

VIII 

Chap. 

IX 

Chap. 

X 

Chap. 

XI 

Chap. 

XII 

Chap. 

XIII 

Chap. 

XIV 

Ceneral  Character  of  American 
Government 

-  The  Selection  of  Public  Officials 
■  Historical  Development 

Town  and  County  Government 
■City  Government 

The  State  Legislatures 
-The  State  Executive 
-Administration  of  Justice 
-The  Protection  of  the  Public 
■Care  for  Public  Welfare 

-  Supervision   of  Commercial   In- 

terests 

-  State  and  Local  Finance 
-The  Sphere  of  State  Activity 
-The  Beginnings  of  Union 


Chap. 
Chap. 


XV 
XVI- 


Chap.  XVII 

Chap.  XVIII 

Chap.  XIX 

Chap.  XX- 

Chap.  XXI 

Chap.  XXII- 

Chap.  XXIII- 

Chap.  XXIV 

Chap.  XXV- 

Chap.  XXVI 

Chap.  XXVII 


Genesis  of  the  Constitution 
■Constitutional  Changes  since 
1787 

The  Nation  and  the  States 

Foreign  Relations 

National  Finance 
-Regulations    affecting    Inter- 
nal Commerce 

Territories  and  Public  Lands 
-Miscellaneous  National  Activ- 
ities 

Congressional  Methods 

The  Houses  of  Congress 
■  The  President 

The  Executive  Department 

The  National  Judiciary 


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A  History  of  the  Ancient  World 

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This  is  a  book  that  represents  the  most  thorough  scholar- 
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in  the  field  of  Ancient  History.  He  has  written  seven  other 
successful  high  school  text-books  in  this  field  and  is  the 
author  of  other  special  works  and  monographs  on  various 
related  topics.  Professor  Ferguson  wrote  in  the  American 
Historical  Review  of  January,    191 2: 

"  The  great  advantage  which  Professor 
Botsford's  History  of  the  Ancient  World 
possesses  is  that  it  springs  from  a  first 
hand   acquaintance   with   the   sources." 

Professor  Botsford  writes  in  a  style  that  is  simple  and  of 
excellent  literary  quality  —  the  story  of  the  Ancient  Nations 
is  well  told  and  very  readable.  Everywhere  the  human  ele- 
ment is  revealed  and  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  contributions  of 
the  ancient  civilizations  to  our  own. 


THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  York 


A  Source  Book  of  Ancient  History 


By  GEORGE  WILLIS   BOTSFORD 

AND 

LILLIE   SHAW   BOTSFORD 


Cloth,  i2mo,  59^  pages,  ,%i-30 


This  volume  is  unique  among  books  of  its  kind  in  that 
it  combines  with  extracts  from  the  sources  of  Greek  and 
Roman  history  about  sixty  pages  of  source  material  con- 
cerning the  Oriental  nations.  The  general  plan  of  the 
book  follows  that  of  Botsford's  "  History  of  the  Ancient 
World,"  and  it  is  particularly  well  adapted  for  use  with 
that  text. 

To  translations  of  extracts  from  the  sources  are  added, 
where  necessary,  brief  explanatory  notes,  showing  their 
full  significance  as  historical  data.  These  extracts  are  of 
such  character  that  they  throw  much  light  on  topics  which 
receive  formal  treatment  in  a  regular  text-book. 

Throughout  the  book  are  references  to  the  original 
sources  and  each  chapter  is  followed  by  series  of  questions 
or  studies.  Topics  treated  are  printed  in  the  margins  in 
black-face  type.  The  book  is  an  indispensable  aid  as  a 
reference  work  in  the  study  of  ancient  history. 


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Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  York 


Tucker's  Life  in  Ancient  Athens 

Cloth ^  J2mo,   illiistraleii,  j/5  pages,  $/.2j 

A  book  that  leaves  an  impression  true  and  sound,  vivid 
and  distinct.  It  deals  with  the  daily  life  of  the  Athenians 
and  gives  intimate  details  concerning  the  streets  and  public 
buildings,  the  houses  and  furniture,  women's  life  and  fash- 
ions, religion,  the  theatre,  trials,  burial,  and  many  other  top- 
ics that  make  the  life  of  the  ancient  Athenians  of  interest  to 
us. 

Tucker's  Life  in  the  Roman  World 
of  Nero  and  St.  Paul 

Cloth,  8vo,   ilhist7-ated,  ^jj  pages,  %2.§o 

Written,  as  was  the  former  book,  in  the  belief  that  "  the 
one  great  hope  for  classical  learning  and  education  lies  in  the 
interest  which  the  unlearned  public  may  be  brought  to  feel 
in  ancient  life  and  thought." 

The  chapters  in  this  book  deal  with  topics  characteristic 
of  the  daily  social  life  of  the  Romans  in  a  special  period. 
Among  the  more  important  topics  discussed  may  be  men- 
tioned the  imperial  system,  streets,  water  supply  and  build- 
ing materials,  the  town  house,  the  country  seat,  travel,  holi- 
days and  amusements,  position  of  woman,  education,  social 
day  of  an  aristocrat,  life  in  middle  and  lower  classes,  phi- 
losophy. 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  York 


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